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The cluster includes all the forms of England. The country ceased to exist in 1654 when it merged with Scotland (initially in form of personal union).
The cluster includes the following incarnations of the same nation:
Kingdom of England
Kingdom of England (Normandy)
Kingdom of England (Angevin Empire)
Commonwealth of England
Establishment
January 928: Ealdred of Northumbria (913-927) submitted to the English king Æthelstan (924-939) in 927.
January 928: Edward's son, Æthelstan, conquered Northumbria in 927, and England became a unified kingdom for the first time.
Chronology
Interactive Chronologies with maps are available in the section Changes Navigation
Æthelstan the Glorious, King of Wessex, conquered Northumbria in 927, and England became a unified kingdom for the first time.
Was the Viking invasion of the British Isles that started with the arrival of the Great Heathen Army in 865 and resulted in the establishment of the Danelaw, the part of England dominated by the Danes.
January 955: The Kingdom of Jórvík was invaded and conquered for short periods by Anglo-Saxons between 927 and 954 before eventually being annexed by them in 954.
Were a series of ephemeral Norse-ruled personal unions between England and Scandinavian countries.
December 1013: Sweyn Forkbeard, the King of Denmark, conquered England in 1013.
February 1014: Sweyn Forkbeard died and his realm was divided.
March 1040: Harthacnut was the son of King Cnut the Great of Denmark and England. He became the ruler of both territories in 1040.
June 1042: Harthacnut died suddenly in 1042 and was succeeded by Magnus in Denmark and Edward the Confessor in England. Harthacnut was the last Dane to rule England.
Was the succesful Danish invasion of the Kingdom of England by Cnut the Great.
September 1015: Early in September 1015 Danish King sailed around Kent to Wessex, until he came to the mouth of the Frome, and harried in Dorset and Wiltshire and Somerset.
April 1016: Early in 1016, the Viking forces led by King Cnut of Denmark crossed the Thames and raided Warwickshire as part of their campaign to conquer England.
April 1016: The mid-winter assault by Cnut of Denmark devastated its way northwards across eastern Mercia.
April 1016: Western Mercia conquered by Kingdom of England.
May 1016: In 1016, King Cnut of Denmark encircled the city of London.
April 1017: The West Saxons accepted Cnut as king of all of England, and he was crowned by Lyfing, Archbishop of Canterbury, in London.
Was the 11th-century invasion and occupation of England by the army of the Duke of Normandy, William the Conqueror.
September 1066: The Normans crossed to England a few days after Harold's victory over the Norwegians at Stamford Bridge on 25 September, following the dispersal of Harold's naval force. They landed at Pevensey in Sussex on 28 September.
October 1066: The Normans erected a wooden castle at Hastings.
October 1066: The Battle of Hastings was fought on 14 October 1066 between the Norman-French army of William, the Duke of Normandy, and an English army under the Anglo-Saxon King Harold Godwinson, beginning the Norman conquest of England.
October 1066: William moved up the Thames valley to cross the river at Wallingford, Berkshire, while there he received the submission of Stigand.
November 1066: William advanced, marching around the coast of Kent to London. He defeated an English force that attacked him at Southwark.
December 1066: The English leaders surrendered to William at Berkhamsted, Hertfordshire. William was acclaimed King of England and crowned by Ealdred on 25 December 1066.
June 1068: The Siege of Exeter occurred in 1068 when William I marched a combined army of Normans and Englishmen loyal to the king west to force the submission of Exeter, a stronghold of Anglo-Saxon resistance against Norman rule.
5.1.Harrying of the North
Was a series of military campaigns waged by William the Conqueror in the winter of 1069-1070 to subjugate northern England.
January 1070: Sweyn II of Denmark landed with an army, in much the same way as Harald Hardrada. He took control of York after defeating the Norman garrison and inciting a local uprising.
April 1070: King William defeated the Danish forces and devastated the region of York in the Harrying of the North.
Was a civil war in England and Normandy between 1138 and 1153 that followed the death of King Henry I.
January 1135: Robert of Gloucester, illegitimate son of Henry I and half-brother of the Empress Matilda, one of the most powerful Anglo-Norman barons, as he controlled large estates in Normandy and was Earl of Gloucester, rebelled against the king in Kent and south- west of England.
December 1135: David of Scotland, related to Matilda on her mother's side, Queen Margaret, once again invaded the north of England, pressing southward into Yorkshire.
April 1136: The royal army marched north rapidly, and Stephen of England met David of Scotland at Durham. Here an agreement was reached whereby David would return most of the acquired territories, with the exception of Carlisle.
January 1137: In 1136, following the Welsh victory in January at the Battle of Llwchwr, in the county of Glamorgan, and the successful ambush of Richard Fitz Gilbert de Clare in April of the same year, a rebellion broke out in south Wales.
January 1139: Dover surrendered to the forces of Stephen.
January 1139: Still as part of the maneuvers aimed at stemming the now rampant civil war, Stephen himself went west in an attempt to regain control of Gloucestershire, first striking in the north of the Welsh Marches, taking Hereford and Strewsbury, and then moving towards Bath.
January 1139: The English king took the opportunity of his military advantage to reach an agreement with Scotland: Matilda of Boulogne, wife of the king, was sent to negotiate a treaty between her husband, King Stephen, and David I of Scotland. With the Treaty of Durham, Northumbria and Cumbria were granted to the Scottish king.
November 1139: Matilda now controlled a compact block of territories: in the southwest from Gloucester and Bristol up to Devon and Cornwall, in the west in the Welsh Marches and in the east up to Oxford and Wallingford (see the situation shown on the map).
April 1140: Nigel, Bishop of Ely, was a supporter of Matilda, who was in a power struggle with King Stephen for the English throne. After having his castles confiscated by Stephen, Nigel rebelled against the king in 1140 in Ely.
January 1141: Stephen brought an armada into the Fens and using pontoon bridges to form a causeway which enabled him to make a surprise attack on Ely island. Nigel managed to escape from Gloucester but his men and castles were captured, thus restoring order to the east.
February 1141: Battle of lincoln.
June 1141: On June 24, shortly before the planned coronation, the city of London rose against Matilda and Geoffrey de Mandeville. Matilda and her supporters managed to escape in a chaotic retreat towards Oxford.
August 1141: Godfrey of Anjou invaded Normandy again and, in the absence of Waleran of Beaumont, who was still fighting in England, took possession of all the duchies south of the Seine and east of the Risle.
December 1142: Shortly before Christmas, Empress Matilda managed to flee the castle on foot, crossed the frozen river and reached Wallingford, leaving the castle garrison free to surrender the following day.
February 1144: Godfrey of Anjou finished securing southern Normandy and in January 1144 advanced as far as Rouen, the capital of the duchy, concluding his campaign. Louis VII of France recognized him as Duke of Normandy shortly thereafter.
December 1154: After the death of Stephen of England, he is succeeded by Henry of Anjou. The Treaty of Wallingford had allowed Stephen to keep the crown until his death, but at the same time had forced him to recognize Henry of Anjou (also known as Henry FitzEmpress), son of Matilde, as his successor.
Took place during the late 12th century, when Anglo-Normans gradually conquered and acquired large swathes of land in Ireland.
January 1171: A small Anglo-Norman force was able to conquer parts of Leinster and the region around Dublin, establishing the Lordship of Ireland.
November 1171: The English king imposed his suzerainty on the Anglo-Norman barons and the Irish kings of Desmond and Thomond also submitted.
January 1172: The Irish troops were far inferior to the powerful armored Anglo- and Cambronorman knights and the Welsh archers accompanying them in open battle, which is why the conquerors were also able to occupy Munster.
January 1172: The English king claimed Meath and Waterford as royal ports.
January 1173: After King Henry's departure, Tigernán Ua Ruairc, the petty king of Brefni, revolted. He was defeated and killed by Hugh de Lacy in 1172.
January 1174: The Kingdom of Midhe was extinguished by England.
January 1176: The Kingdom of Leinster was conquered by England.
January 1177: Osraighe is conquered by England.
January 1178: Anglo-Norman knight John de Courcy conquered Ulster in 1177.
January 1178: Ulaid ceased to exist after its conquest in the late 12th century by the Anglo-Norman knight John de Courcy.
January 1236: By 1235 Richard Mór de Burgh, a son of William de Burgh, had conquered Connacht. This was the climax of the Anglo-Norman conquest.
January 1251: The Anglo-Normans controlled about three quarters of Ireland by 1250.
Was an invasion led by Richard I of England against the Domain of Cyprus, a breakaway state from the Byzantine Empire ruled by Isaac Doukas Komnenos.
May 1191: English king Richard's fleet arrived in the port of Lemesos on Cyprus. He ordered Isaac to release the prisoners and treasure. Isaac refused, so Richard landed his troops and took Limassol.
June 1191: Richard's troops, led by Guy de Lusignan, conquered the whole of Cyprus island.
January 1192: The island of Cyprus is sold to the master of Knights Templar.
Was a war of Normandy and England (which were in personal union) against the Kingdom of France. The English possessions in northern France wer lost to the French.
August 1202: Battle of Mirebeau.
September 1203: The Siege of Château Gaillard in 1203 was a military action led by King Philip II of France against King John of England. Château Gaillard was a strategically important castle in Normandy, France, built by Richard the Lionheart. After a lengthy siege, the French forces were able to capture the castle, marking a significant victory for the Kingdom of France in the ongoing conflict with England.
March 1204: The Siege of Château Gaillard in 1204 was a military action led by King Philip II of France against King John of England. The fortress was eventually captured, leading to the territory falling under the control of the Kingdom of France.
September 1204: French conquest of Normandy.
January 1205: French forces advanced south to occupy Anjou and Poitou.
In two campaigns, in 1277 and 1282-83, respectively, Edward I of England first greatly reduced the territory of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd ("Llywelyn the Last"), and then completely overran it, as well as the other remaining Welsh principalities.
January 1246: A dynastic dispute in the succession to the throne, weakened Gwynedd (Wales) and allowed Henry III of England to seize Perfeddwlad.
January 1257: From 1256 a resurgent Gwynedd under Llywelyn ap Gruffudd resumed the war with Henry and took back Perfeddwlad.
December 1277: In July 1277, Edward of England launched a punitive expedition into North Wales. Llywelyn soon realised his position was hopeless and quickly surrendered. By the Treaty of Aberconwy in November 1277, Llywelyn was left only with the western part of Gwynedd, though he was allowed to retain the title of Prince of Wales.
February 1283: War broke out in Wales again in 1282, as a result of a rebellion by Llywelyn's brother Dafydd, who was discontented with the reward he had received from Edward of England in 1277. Edward raised a new army and boldly marched into Snowdonia in January 1283 and captured Dolwyddelan Castle in the heartland of the Welsh resistance.
July 1283: The conquest of Gwynedd was completed with the capture in June 1283 of Dafydd. Edward divided the territory of the Welsh principalities between himself (that is, retained under direct royal control) and his supporters through feudal grants, which in practice became new Marcher lordships.
Was a war between the Kingdoms of England and France.
11.1.Guascon campaign (1294-1303)
Was the theatre of War of Guascony during the Anglo-French War of 1294-1303.
11.1.1.First English Attack (Anglo-French War of 1294-1303)
Was an English expedition in Aquitaine during the Anglo-French War of 1294-1303.
May 1294: Edward I, also known as Edward Longshanks, was the King of England from 1272 to 1307. In 1294, he was forfeited of Aquitaine, Gascony, and other French possessions by the King of France, Philip IV, due to ongoing conflicts between the two kingdoms.
October 1294: The English fleet arrived off Aquitaine and went up the Garonne River and seized the town of Castillon.
October 1294: Travelling up the Gironde estuary from the 28 October, the English captured the towns of Macau the next day.
November 1294: Bourg conquered by Kingdom of England.
November 1294: Blaye conquered by Kingdom of England.
November 1294: The English fleet went up stream to Rions, which was captured, along with Podensac and Villeneuve.
January 1295: St John left John of Brittany at Rions and travelled to Bayonne, and laid siege to the town. On 1 January 1295, the French garrison was driven into the castle by the citizens of Bayonne and the citizens opened the town gates to him. The castle surrendered on 9 January.
11.1.2.French Counterattack (Anglo-French War of 1294-1303)
Was an French expedition in Aquitaine during the Anglo-French War of 1294-1303.
April 1295: Both John of Brittany and St John defended Rions, but due to the fall of the neighbouring towns and discontent between the English troops, they abandoned Rions, which the French entered on 8 April.
July 1295: The French army retook Podensac and then Saint-Sever in June 1295. Only Bourg and Blaye remained in English hands in the north of the duchy and Bayonne and Saint-Sever in the south.
January 1296: Philip IV of France sent his brother Charles of Valois, the Marshal of France, Guy I of Clermont and the Constable of France, Raoul II of Clermont into Aquitaine and Gascony at the head of a large army that won back most of the English conquests in the Garonne valley.
11.1.3.Second English Attack (Anglo-French War of 1294-1303)
Was an English expedition in Aquitaine during the Anglo-French War of 1294-1303.
April 1296: In 1296, the towns of Langon and Saint-Macaire surrendered to the forces of King Edward I of England, led by his son Prince Edmund. This event was part of the ongoing conflict between England and France over control of territories in Gascony.
11.2.Treaty of Paris (1303)
Was the treaty that ended Anglo-French War of 1294-1303. Gascony was restored to England from France following its occupation during the war.
May 1303: The Anglo-French War of 1294–1303 ended when the Treaty of Paris was signed in 1303, which restored the status quo.
Were a series of military campaigns fought between the Kingdom of Scotland and the Kingdom of England in the late 13th and early 14th centuries.
12.1.First War of Scottish Independence
Was the first of a series of wars between English and Scottish forces. It lasted from the English invasion of Scotland in 1296 until the de jure restoration of Scottish independence with the Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton in 1328.
12.1.1.English invasion of Scotland (1296)
Was the English invasion of Scotland in 1296 that resulted in the occupation of the country.
March 1296: The English army crossed the Tweed River and proceeded to the priory of Coldstream.
March 1296: The Kingdom of England captured Berwick.
April 1296: After the Battle of Dunbar Edward I of England arrived at Dunbar on 28 April, with the castle surrendering.
May 1296: Edward I, the King of England, arrived in Haddington as part of his campaign to assert English control over Scotland.
May 1296: Lauder conquered by Kingdom of England.
June 1296: In Edinburgh English forces laid siege to Edinburgh Castle. After five days of siege the castle surrendered.
June 1296: King Edward I of England led his army to capture various Scottish territories including Jedburgh Castle, Wyel, Castleton, Jedborough, and Roxburgh. The English forces then proceeded to Lauder and the abbey of Newbattle.
July 1296: Edward I, also known as Edward Longshanks, was the King of England at the time. Stirling Castle was surrendered by the porter to Edward I in 1296 during the First War of Scottish Independence. This event marked the English conquest of Scotland.
July 1296: In 1296, King Edward I of England marched through Auchterarder, Perth, Kinclaven, Clunie, Inverqueich, Forfar, Farnell, and Montrose as part of his campaign to assert English control over Scotland during the First War of Scottish Independence.
August 1296: John and the leading nobles of Scotland presented themselves to Edward I at Stracathro Churchyard in July and surrendered.
12.1.2.Wallace Revolt
Was a revolt in Scotland against English occupation led by William Wallace and Andrew de Moray.
November 1297: Wallace and Moray divided their forces and in a short time again forced the English south of the Forth, leaving them holding only the castle of Dundee.
November 1297: William Wallace, a Scottish knight and leader of the Scottish resistance against English rule, picked up the sword in 1297 to invade England. He crossed into Northumberland, a territory that was part of the Kingdom of Scotland at the time.
December 1297: Scottish forces led by William Wallace leave Northumberland.
12.1.3.English Second Invasion of Scotland
Was a military campaign undertaken by Edward I of England in retaliation to a Scottish uprising in 1297. The English were ultimately unsuccesful in recapturing Scotland.
July 1298: Battle of Falkirk: the English army defeated the Scots. Edward of England occupied Stirling and raided Perth, St. Andrews and Ayrshire.
September 1298: The English forces retreated to Carlisle.
January 1300: The Scots recaptured Stirling Castle.
12.1.4.English Third Invasion of Scotland
Was a military campaign undertaken by Edward I of England to continue gains from the 1298 invasion.
June 1300: Edward I, also known as Edward Longshanks, was the King of England who led the campaign into Scotland in 1300. Caerlaverock Castle was a strategically important fortress in the region of Annandale and Galloway, which fell under English control as a result of the invasion.
October 1300: In 1300, King Edward I of England arranged a truce with the Scots on 30 October after facing lack of success in the occupied regions. This allowed him to return to England from the ongoing conflict with the Kingdom of Scotland.
October 1301: Bothwell conquered by Kingdom of England.
January 1302: In 1301, the English armies led by King Edward I and his son Prince Edward met at Linlithgow to winter.
February 1302: In January 1302, King Edward I of England agreed to a nine-month truce with King John Balliol of Scotland. This truce was part of ongoing negotiations between the two kingdoms during the First War of Scottish Independence.
12.1.5.English Fourth Invasion of Scotland
English invasion of Scotland, undertaken by King Edward I of England after the failure of the 1301 invasion.
July 1303: King Edward I of England reached Edinburgh in June 1303.
July 1303: The English army marched on Linlithgow, Stirling, and Perth.
September 1303: In 1303, King Edward I of England traveled through Dundee, Montrose, and Brechin before arriving in Aberdeen in August. This journey was part of his campaign to assert English control over Scotland during the First War of Scottish Independence.
December 1303: In 1303, King Edward I of England marched through Moray, Badenoch, and Dunfermline as part of his campaign to assert English control over Scotland. This military campaign was part of the ongoing conflict between the two kingdoms for dominance in the region.
February 1304: Early in 1304, Edward of England sent a raiding party into the Scottish borders, which put to flight the forces under Fraser and Wallace. With the country now under submission, all the leading Scots surrendered to Edward in February, except for Wallace, Fraser, and Soulis, who was in France. Terms of submission were negotiated on 9 February by John Comyn.
June 1304: Having eliminated most Scottish opposition, Edward turned his attention to Stirling Castle, laying siege to it.
12.1.6.De facto independence of Scotland from England
De facto independence of Scotland was established in 1314 at the Battle of Bannockburn.
June 1314: De facto independence was established in 1314 at the Battle of Bannockburn.
May 1318: Sir James Douglas, a Scottish knight and military leader, captured Berwick-upon-Tweed from the English in 1318 during the First War of Scottish Independence. The town had been under English control since 1296.
12.1.7.Bruce campaign in Ireland
Was a three-year military campaign in Ireland by Edward Bruce, brother of the Scottish king Robert the Bruce.
January 1315: In 1315, during the First War of Scottish Independence, Scottish forces led by Robert the Bruce bypassed Dublin and advanced to Kildare in southern Ireland, as part of their campaign against English rule in Ireland.
May 1315: Edward Bruce, the younger brother of King Robert the Bruce of Scotland, landed at Larne in Antrim on May 26, 1315.
June 1315: The Scots, led by King Robert the Bruce, captured Dundalk from the English forces.
September 1315: The defeat of the Earls of Ulster secured Edward Bruce a base in Ulster.
January 1316: In December 1315, King Robert the Bruce of Scotland defeated a force led by Roger Mortimer of Wigmore at Kells. This victory was a significant moment in the First War of Scottish Independence, solidifying Bruce's control over the region.
January 1316: Ardscull at Athy on 26 January 1316.
February 1316: The Scots retreated to Ulster in view of their low supplies.
September 1316: During the First War of Scottish Independence, King Robert the Bruce of Scotland led his forces to capture the castles of Greencastle and Northburgh in 1316, expanding his territory in Ireland.
October 1316: Carrickfergus surrendered to Socttish forces in September 1316.
February 1317: In 1317, during the First War of Scottish Independence, King Robert the Bruce's forces burned the town of Slane in County Meath, Ireland. This was part of the ongoing conflict between the Kingdom of Scotland and the English crown.
February 1317: Before February 23, the Scottish army was in front of Dublin.
April 1317: The turning point came in early April 1317 when the new King's Lieutenant Roger Mortimer landed in southern Ireland with reinforcements. With no adequate supplies, no support from the Irish people and amid further fighting, the Scots retreated to Ulster.
April 1317: In 1317, Edward Bruce, brother of King Robert the Bruce of Scotland, led a military campaign through Leinster and Munster in Ireland. They bypassed Dublin and headed southwest, eventually reaching Limerick in early April.
12.1.8.Bruce raids of Northern England
Raids on Northern England, carried out by Scottish king Robert the Bruce during the First Scottish War of Independence between 30 September and 2 November 1322.
September 1322: The Great Raid of 1322 was a major raid on Northern England, carried out by Robert the Bruce, King of Scotland.
October 1322: End of the Scottish Great Raid of 1322.
12.2.Second War of Scottish Independence
The Second War of Scottish Independence broke out in 1332 when Edward Balliol, a claimant to the Scottish throne, led an English-backed invasion of Scotland.
12.2.1.Invasion of Edward III
English invasion of Scotland, undertaken by King Edward III of England as part of the Second War of Scottish Independence.
March 1333: Battle of Dornock.
April 1333: Siege of Berwick.
July 1333: Siege of Berwick.
August 1333: In July 1333, King Edward III of England gained control of several Scottish territories, including Roxburgh, Edinburgh, Peebles, Dumfries, Linlithgow, and Haddington, from King John Balliol of Scotland during the Second War of Scottish Independence.
January 1334: Battle of Halidon Hill: much of Scotland falls under English occupation, with eight of the counties of the Lowlands ceded to England by Edward Balliol.
August 1335: Edward III was the King of England and Edward Balliol was a claimant to the Scottish throne. In 1335, they invaded Scotland with a large army, capturing Glasgow and Perth as part of their campaign to assert English control over Scotland.
November 1336: By the end of 1336 the Scots had regained control over virtually all of Scotland.
June 1337: In May 1337, the English army under the orders of Henry Plantagenet invaded Scotland, followed in July 1337 by another army under the orders of King Edward III. Together, they ravaged much of the northeast by sacking Elgin and Aberdeen, while a third army pillaged the southwest and the Clyde Valley.
July 1337: In May 1337, the English army under the orders of Henry Plantagenet invaded Scotland, followed in July 1337 by another army under the orders of King Edward III. Together, they ravaged much of the northeast by sacking Elgin and Aberdeen, while a third army pillaged the southwest and the Clyde Valley.
12.2.2.Raid of David II
Was a raid in Northern England by the Scottish king David II.
October 1341: David II of Scotland leads a raid on England.
November 1341: Edward III marshal an army north to reinforce the borders against the invading Scottish forces.
Was a short war fought between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France in 1324.
September 1324: The town of La Réole surrendered on 22 September 1324 to King Charles IV of France during the War of Saint-Sardos. The conflict was part of the larger struggle for power between the French monarchy and the English crown during the Hundred Years' War.
Were a series of conflicts between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France that spanned more than a century (with interruptions) from 1337 to 1453. The immediate causes of the conflicts were the English possessions in France which were at the same time vassals of the French Kingdom, as well as disputed claims to the French throne between the English House of Plantagenet and the French royal House of Valois. At the end of the war Englans lost all its possessions in France with the exception of the city of Calais.
September 1346: Caen is besieged by England.
14.1.Edwardian War
Was the first phase of the Hundred Years' War between France and England, lasting from 1337 to 1360.
October 1355: During the so-called Black Prince's chevauchée of 1355, an Anglo-Gascon force under the command of Edward, the Black Prince raided southern France.
November 1355: Territories left by the Anglo-Gascon force that raided southern France during the so-called Black Prince's chevauchée of 1355.
August 1356: The Black Prince's chevauchée of 1356 was a military campaign led by Edward, the Prince of Wales, son of King Edward III of England. The campaign took place in southwestern France, targeting ergerac, Périgord, Nontronnais, Confolentais, Limousin, La Marche, Boischaut, Champagne Berrichonne, Berry, Sologne, south of Touraine and Poitou.
September 1356: French reconquers the regions lost during the Black Prince's chevauchée of 1356.
March 1360: The English besiege Paris (1360).
April 1360: End of the English Siege of Paris (1360).
April 1360: Siege of Chartres.
April 1360: 'Black Monday' refers to a devastating hailstorm that struck Chartres in 1360 during the Hundred Years' War. The storm caused significant damage to the city and surrounding areas, leading to widespread destruction and loss of life. The territory of Chartres ultimately fell under the control of the Kingdom of France.
14.1.1.English Channel naval campaig
Were a protracted series of raids conducted by the nascent French navy and numerous private raiders and pirates against English towns, shipping and islands in the English Channel.
October 1338: The island of Sark, which had been plundered as early as 1337, is taken without a fight.
October 1338: Guernsey likewise capitulated after some skirmishes.
14.1.2.First English Campaign (Edwardian War)
Was the first English military campaign in France during the Edwardian War.
September 1339: As Cambrai was an ally of the king of France, on 20 September king Edward's army marched into the bishopric.
October 1339: The army of English king Edward left Cambrai to advance into France proper.
October 1339: In 1339, during the Hundred Years' War, King Edward III of England advanced towards the French army in the 14-mile strip of French land around the bishopric of Cambrai. The territory was eventually occupied by England, leading to further plundering of the area by Edward's forces.
October 1339: In 1339, King Edward III of England marched his troops out of occupied regions in France after the French forces did not pursue him. This decision by the French led to the abrupt end of the campaign in the Hundred Years' War.
14.1.3.Second English Campaign (Edwardian War)
Was the second English military campaign in France during the Edwardian War.
July 1340: Siege of Tournai.
July 1340: Battle of Saint Omer.
14.1.4.Guascon campaign of 1345
Was an English military campaign in Gascony during the Edwardian War.
September 1345: Battle of Bergerac.
October 1345: Battle of Auberoche.
14.1.5.Crécy campaign
Was an English military campaign in northern France during the Edwardian War.
July 1346: English conquest of Conquest of Argences.
August 1346: English conquest of Conquest of Lisieux.
August 1346: English conquest of Conquest of Brionne.
August 1346: English conquest of Conquest of Elbeuf.
August 1346: English conquest of Conquest of Pont de l'Arche.
August 1346: English conquest of Conquest of Vernon.
August 1346: English conquest of Conquest of Freneuse.
August 1346: English conquest of Conquest of Poissy.
August 1346: English conquest of Conquest of Grisy.
August 1346: English conquest of Conquest of Auteuill.
August 1346: English conquest of Conquest of Troisseraux.
August 1346: English conquest of Conquest of Airaines and Poix.
August 1346: English conquest of Conquest of Acheux.
August 1346: Battle of Crecy.
August 1346: English conquest of Conquest of St. Josse.
August 1346: English conquest of Conquest of Neufchatel.
September 1346: English conquest of Conquest of Wissant.
August 1347: Wissant is re-occupied by the French.
August 1347: Calais, a strategic port city in France, was captured by King Edward III of England in 1347 during the Hundred Years' War. The Treaty of Brétigny in 1360 confirmed English possession of Calais and its surroundings, establishing it as an important English stronghold on the continent.
September 1347: In 1347, on the heels of English victory at the battle of Crécy (1346), the Viscount Gaston III Fébus paid homage to the king of France for his county of Foix, but refused to give homage for Béarn, which he claimed to hold from no one but God.
January 1350: In 1349, Saint-Jean-d'Angély became English territory during the Hundred Years' War between England and France.
August 1351: Saint-Jean-d'Angély fell to the French.
14.1.6.Treaty of Brétigny
The Treaty of Brétigny was a treaty that marked the end of the first phase of the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453). By virtue of this treaty, Edward III of England obtained large territorial gains in southwestern France.
October 1360: In 1360, the Treaty of Brétigny was signed between King Edward III of England and King John II of France. The treaty transferred the Channel Islands, including Guernsey, from French suzerainty to English control. This marked a significant shift in the territorial ownership of the islands.
October 1360: The Treaty of Brétigny was a treaty, drafted on 8 May 1360 and ratified on 24 October 1360, between King Edward III of England and King John II of France (the Good). In retrospect, it is seen as having marked the end of the first phase of the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) as well as the height of English power on the Continent. By virtue of this treaty, Edward III obtained, besides Guyenne and Gascony, Poitou, Saintonge and Aunis, Agenais, Périgord, Limousopn, Quercy, Bigorre, the countship of Gauré, Angoumois, Rouergue, Montreuil-sur-Mer, Ponthieu, Calais, Sangatte, Ham and the countship of Guînes.
14.2.Caroline War
Was the second phase of the Hundred Years' War between France and England. .
September 1370: Sacking of the city of Limoges in 1370 by the English forces.
September 1370: The English besiege Paris (1370).
September 1370: End of the English Siege of Paris (1370).
October 1370: End of the "Sac de Limoges".
June 1372: Siege of La Rochelle.
August 1372: Siege of Soubise.
August 1372: Siege of La Rochelle.
January 1373: The alliance with the Kingdom of Castile led to the annihilation of the English fleet by the Castilian fleet at the Battle of La Rochelle on June 22, 1372161. Deprived of logistical support, the strongholds ceded by the Treaty of Brétigny fell one after the other. the others: Poitiers in 1372.
March 1373: Battle of Chizé.
August 1373: The Chevauchée de Lancastre was an English military campaign through the territory between Calais and Bordeaux.
September 1373: English forces leave the territories occupied during the Chevauchée de Lancastre.
January 1378: Bergerac conquered by france.
January 1380: The Siege of Châteauneuf-de-Randon in 1380 involved French forces led by Bertrand du Guesclin and English forces led by Robert Knolles. The French successfully captured the town, leading to its territory being placed under French military occupation.
July 1380: The Siege of Châteauneuf-de-Randon in 1380 involved French forces led by Bertrand du Guesclin and English forces led by Robert Knolles. The French successfully captured the town, leading to its territory being placed under French military occupation.
August 1385: Siège of Wark.
October 1385: Jean de Vienne re-embarks with his men for France, leaving Wark.
14.3.Lancastrian War
Was the third and final phase of the Hundred Years' War between France and England. At the end of the war England lost all its continental possessions in France with the exception of the city of Calais.
14.3.1.First English Campaign (Lancastrian War)
Was an English military campaign in France during the Lancastrian War, the last phase of the Hundred Years' War. France suffered an unexpected defeat by the numerically inferior English army in the Battle of Agincourt.
August 1415: Henry V of England landed at Chef-en-Caux in the Seine estuary.
September 1415: The French town of Harfleur was successfully captured after a five-week siege, marking a significant victory for the English forces.
October 1415: English land victory against the French in the Battle of Agincourt (1415).
November 1415: The Battle of Azincourt in 1415 was a major victory for the English forces led by King Henry V against the French army. Despite the decisive win, Henry's focus was on returning to England rather than further conquests in France.
14.3.2.Second English Campaign (Lancastrian War)
Was an English military campaign in France during the Lancastrian War, the last phase of the Hundred Years' War.
January 1419: Rouen is besieged by England.
July 1420: The Siege of Montereau-Fault-Yonne in 1420 was a military conflict during the Hundred Years' War between the forces of King Henry V of England and the Dauphin Charles VII of France. The English emerged victorious, leading to the territory falling under English military occupation.
November 1420: Melun is besieged by England.
December 1420: English forces captured Paris.
March 1421: Battle of Bauge.
April 1421: Battle of Bauge.
May 1422: Meaux is besieged by England.
September 1422: English campaign during which Dreux and Chartres are seized.
August 1424: Bataille de Verneuil: The consequences of the victory at Verneuil were: The English captured all border posts of Lancastrian Normandy and La Hire withdrew to the east. The only exception was Mont Saint-Michel, where the monks resisted.
March 1426: Dol conquered by england.
March 1426: Battle of St. James.
April 1426: The English military occupation of Brittany ended. Brittany became an ally-vassal of England.
July 1427: The Siege of Montargis in 1427 was part of the Hundred Years' War between England and France. The English forces, led by John, Duke of Bedford, successfully captured Montargis, a key strategic town in the Loire Valley, leading to a period of military occupation by England.
September 1427: The Siege of Montargis in 1427 was a military conflict between the forces of Joan of Arc, leading the French army, and the English troops. Montargis was a strategic town in the Kingdom of France, and its capture by the French marked a significant victory in the Hundred Years' War.
March 1428: Laval is besieged by England.
October 1428: English and Burgundian forces started the Siege of Orléans.
14.3.3.French Reconquest (final phase of the Hundred Years' War)
Was a French military campaign in the territories occupied by England. The campaign was succesful and led to the expulsion of the the English from France (with the exception of the city of Calais).
May 1429: Siege of Orleans.
June 1429: Battle of Jargeau.
June 1429: Battle of Meung-sur-Loire.
June 1429: Battle of Beaugency.
July 1429: Reims conquered by Kingdom of France.
September 1429: The French besiege Paris, which at the time was in English hands (1429).
September 1429: The French army was not able to conquer Paris and lifted the siege.
September 1429: Laval is besieged by the Kingdom of France.
October 1430: The Siege of Compiègne in 1430 was a military confrontation during the Hundred Years' War between the English forces led by Thomas de Montacute and the French defenders commanded by Joan of Arc. The siege resulted in the capture of Joan of Arc, who was later handed over to the English and eventually executed.
August 1432: Siege of Lagny-sur-Marne.
May 1435: Battle of Gerberoy.
June 1435: The French troops of Charles VII started a new siege of Paris, which at the time was in English hands (1435).
April 1436: After a long siege, the French were able to chase the English from Paris.
June 1442: Siege of Tartas.
August 1443: Siege of Dieppe.
July 1449: Verneuil-sur-Avre conquered by Kingdom of France.
October 1449: End of the siege of Rouen.
November 1449: The capture of Honfleur by the French army liberated the Seine estuary from English control during the Hundred Years' War.
November 1449: French forces besiege Fougères.
April 1450: Battle of Formigny.
September 1450: Cherbourg falls. There are no more English in Normandy.
June 1451: Bordeaux conquered by Kingdom of France.
October 1452: Bordeaux conquered by Kingdom of England.
July 1453: Battle of Castillon.
October 1453: Siege of Bordeaux.
October 1453: Bordeaux was ceded to the Duchy of Brittany.
October 1453: By the end of the War of the Roses, the English influence in Brittany had ended.
Was an inconclusive military campaign of Henry IV of England in Scotland.
August 1400: King Henry IV of England invaded the Scotland border regions in Berwickshire in mid-August of 1400.
August 1400: Following the failed invasion of Scotland in 1400, King Henry IV of England ordered the retreat of the English army back across the border. This retreat marked a significant victory for the Kingdom of Scotland, led by King Robert III.
Was a Welsh rebellion led by Owain Glyndŵr against the Kingdom of England during the Late Middle Ages.
September 1400: On 16 September 1400, Owain acted, and was proclaimed Prince of Wales by a small band of followers which included his eldest son, his brothers-in-law, and the Dean of St Asaph. This was a revolutionary statement in itself. Owain’s men quickly spread through north-east Wales. On 18 September, the town of Ruthin and De Grey's stronghold of Ruthin Castle were attacked.
September 1400: Denbigh, Rhuddlan, Flint, Hawarden, and Holt conquered by Welsh Rebels.
September 1400: The town of Oswestry was badly damaged by in a raid by Welsh rebel leader Owain Glyndŵr.
September 1400: Owain Glyndŵr, a Welsh rebel leader who led a revolt against English rule, attacked Powis Castle and sacked Welshpool.
September 1400: When Henry of England arrived on Anglesey, he harried the island, burning villages and monasteries including the Llanfaes Friary near Bangor, Gwynedd.
October 1400: By 15 October, Henry of England was back in Shrewsbury where he released some prisoners and two days later at Worcester with little to show for his efforts.
January 1402: In 1401, the revolt began to spread. Much of northern and central Wales went over to Owain.
January 1404: In 1403 the Welsh revolt led by Owain expanded into southern and western Wales.
September 1404: Owain captured and garrisoned the great western castles of Harlech and Aberystwyth.
January 1407: English forces landed in Anglesey from Ireland. Over the next year they would gradually push the Welsh back until the resistance in Anglesey formally ended toward the end of 1406.
April 1407: By 1407 this strategy was beginning to bear fruit. In March, 1,000 men from all over Flintshire appeared before the Chief Justitiar of the county and agreed to pay a communal fine for their adherence to Glyndŵr.
August 1407: In July the Earl of Arundel’s north-east Lordship around Oswestry and Clun submitted.
December 1407: In 1407, Aberystwyth Castle surrendered to the forces of King Henry IV of England.
January 1410: Harlech Castle was captured by the forces of King Henry IV of England.
January 1416: By 1415, full English rule was returned to Wales.
Were a series of conflicts covering the period between 1494 to 1559, fought mostly in the Italian peninsula, but later expanding into Flanders, the Rhineland and the Mediterranean Sea. The primary belligerents were the Valois kings of France, and their Habsburg opponents in the Holy Roman Empire and Spain.
17.1.War of the League of Cambrai
Was one of the so-called Italian wars.
17.1.1.Fourth Phase - Alliance between Venice and France
Was the fourth phase of the War of the League of Cambrai, one of the so-called Italian Wars.
September 1513: In 1513, during the War of the League of Cambrai, the French commander La Palice was defeated by the English forces led by the Earl of Surrey in the Battle of Guinegatte. As a result, Tournai was conquered by England and remained under military occupation.
January 1515: Henry VIII, having failed to gain significant territory, concluded a separate peace with France.
17.2.Italian War of 1521-1526
Was one of the so-called Italian wars. The war pitted Francis I of France and the Republic of Venice against the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, Henry VIII of England, and the Papal States.
September 1523: A huge English force under the command of the Duke of Suffolk advanced into French territory from Calais in combination with a Flemish-Imperial force. The French, scattered by the imperial attack, were unable to resist and Suffolk soon advanced beyond the Somme River, devastating the countryside and stopping only 80 kilometers from Paris.
October 1523: The English army retreats from Paris.
December 1523: English retreat to Calais.
17.3.Italian War of 1542-1546
Was one of the so-called Italian Wars.
17.3.1.French Theatre (Italian War of 1542-1546)
Was the war theatre on French territory in the Italian War of 1542-1546.
July 1544: The Siege of Boulogne in 1544 resulted in the capture of the city by the English forces.
August 1544: The Duke of Norfolk, was ordered by King Henry VIII of England to besiege Montreuil in France.
September 1544: English forces, led by King Henry VIII, besieged the French-held town of Boulogne. The French garrison's firepower prevented any approach on foot, so the English dug tunnels under the castle, and the French eventually surrendered the city.
January 1545: The French Dauphin's army advanced on Montreuil.
June 1546: The Treaty of Ardres (or Treaty of Camp) was signed by Claude d'Annebault, Pierre Ramon, and Guillaume Bochetel on behalf of Francis, and Viscount Lisle, Baron Paget and Nicholas Wotton on behalf of Henry. By its terms, Henry would retain Boulogne until 1554, then return it in exchange for two million écus. In the meantime, neither side would construct fortifications in the region.
June 1546: The French forced the English to raise their siege of the city of Montreuil.
17.4.Italian War of 1551-1559
Was one of the so-called Italian Wars.
17.4.1.Land Campaigns (Italian War of 1551-1559)
Were the Land campaigns of the Italian War of 1551-1559.
January 1558: Calais conquered by France.
Were a series of wars in Europe (and the overseas possessions of European countries) the 16th, 17th and early 18th that started after the Protestant Reformation. Although the immediate causes of the wars were religious, the motives were complex and also included territorial ambitions.
18.1.Eighty Years' War
Was the intermittent war of independence of the Dutch Republic, a breakaway state from the Spanish Netherlands. .
18.1.1.Dutch revolt and establishment of the Dutch Republic
Was the revolt of northern protestant regions of the Spanish Neterlands (the southern part was mainly Catholic) that led to the creation of the Dutch Republic.
18.1.1.1.The Union of Utrecht
Was a treaty signed on 23 January 1579 in Utrecht, Netherlands, unifying the northern provinces of the Spanish Netherlands.
September 1585: Antwerp was besieged and it surrendered to the Spanish in August.
18.1.1.2.English Protectorate in the Netherlands
The Dutch rebels of the northern Spanish Netherlands became an English protectorate with the Treaty of Nonsuch, signed on 10 August 1585, as a measure of protection against Spain.
August 1585: After the assassination of William of Orange on 10 July 1584, both Henry III of France and Elizabeth I of England declined offers of sovereignty. However, the latter agreed to turn the United Provinces into a protectorate of England (Treaty of Nonsuch, 1585), and sent the Earl of Leicester as governor-general.
February 1587: In January 1587, the English garrisons led by Sir John Norreys at Deventer and Zutphen were bribed to defect to Spain by the Governor of the Spanish Netherlands, Alexander Farnese. This marked a significant loss for the English forces in the region, as they also lost control of Zwolle, Arnhem, and Ostend to the Spanish.
October 1587: English forces led by the Earl of Leicester (the English supported the Dutch Republic) occupied Gouda, Schoonhoven and a few other cities in September 1587.
January 1588: The English protectorate in the Netherlands was unsuccessful and in 1588 the provinces became a confederacy.
18.2.Wars of the Three Kingdoms
Were a series of intertwined conflicts fought between 1639 and 1653 in the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland, then separate entities united in a personal union under Charles I. They resulted in victory for the Parliamentarian army, the execution of Charles I, the abolition of monarchy, and founding of the Commonwealth of England, a Unitary state which controlled the British Isles until the Stuart Restoration in 1660.
January 1650: The Commonwealth was the political structure during the period from 1649 to 1660 when England and Wales, later along with Ireland and Scotland.
April 1654: In 1654, under the rule of Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell, the Ordinance for uniting Scotland with England was issued, leading to the creation of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland.
18.2.1.Third English Civil War
Was a war between the Commonwealth of England and the Kingdom of Scotland that result in the inglobation of Scotland into the Commonwealth.
18.2.1.1.Royalist Invasion of England
Was the invasion of England by the Kingdom of Scotland in the Third English Civil War.
August 1651: Battle of Warrington Bridge (1651).
September 1651: Battle of Worcester.
In 1603, James VI of Scotland succeeded Elizabeth I, the last Tudor monarch of England and Ireland, who had died childless, joining Scotland with England in a personal union.
March 1603: James VI of Scotland became King of England, joining Scotland with England in a personal union.
March 1603: Personal Union of Scotland and Ireland.
January 948: Norwegian king Eric Bloodaxe was also King of Northumbria twice (c. 947-948 and 952-954).
January 949: Norwegian king Eric Bloodaxe was also King of Northumbria twice (c. 947-948 and 952-954).
January 953: Norwegian king Eric Bloodaxe was also King of Northumbria twice (c. 947-948 and 952-954).
January 955: Norwegian king Eric Bloodaxe was also King of Northumbria twice (c. 947-948 and 952-954).
November 1035: After the death of Cnut the Great, the North Sea Empire was again divided into Denmark, England, and Norway.
September 1087: William the conqueror's lands were divided after his death: Normandy went to his son Robert, and England went to his second surviving son, William Rufus.
January 1092: The last native King of Morgannwyg and Glywysing was Iestyn ap Gwrgan (1081-1090), who was subsequently deposed by Robert Fitzhamon.
January 1093: At the time of the Domesday Book (1086) most of the future county of Cumberland was part of Scotland.In 1092, King William Rufus of England invaded the Carlisle district, settling it with colonists.
September 1106: In 1106, Henry of England defeated his brother Robert's army decisively at the Battle of Tinchebray and claimed Normandy as a possession of the English crown.
December 1135: On the death of King Henry I in 1135, Cumberland was regained by Scotland's King David I.
January 1140: Until the thirteenth century the borders of Scotland with England were very fluid, with Northumbria being annexed to Scotland by David I. After another invasion by his father, Henry of England was finally invested with the Earldom of Northumberland in 1139.
January 1144: Geoffrey V of Anjou, also known as Geoffrey Plantagenet, was a powerful medieval nobleman who became Duke of Normandy through military conquest in 1144.
December 1154: Stephen of England recognised Henry of Anjou as his heir. Stephen died the next year and Henry ascended the throne as Henry II, the first Angevin king of England.
January 1158: The Earldom of Northumberland was briefly held by the Scottish royal family by marriage between 1139-1157. In 1157 it was given back to England.
January 1167: With the marriage of the daughter of Conan IV of Brittany, to Geoffrey Plantagenet, son of Henry of England, the Kingdom of Brittany becamede facto a vassal of the Angevin Empire.
January 1213: From 1206 to 1212, Philip Augustus of France strove to strengthen his territorial conquests. Capetian domination was accepted in Champagne, Brittany, and Auvergne, but the counties of Boulogne and Flanders remain reluctant.
January 1213: The Angevins remained in control of Brittany until the collapse of their empire in northern France in 1204.
January 1225: Louis VIII later claimed that the English court had not fulfilled all the conditions of the treaty of 1217. Taking advantage of the minority of Henry III, he decided to seize the last English possessions in France. Aquitaine was taken, the cities of the region falling one after the other: Poitou, Saintonge, Périgord, Angoumois, and part of Bordeaux. Louis VIII seized all territory as far as the Garonne, in a quick campaign. To control the trade of the region, the French laid siege to the strategic port city of La Rochelle in 1224, and after a few military confrontations between the English garrison and Louis' forces, the city surrendered within a month. The remaining possessions held by the English king were Bordeaux and Gascony.
January 1225: End of the Angevin Empire.
September 1237: The Treaty of York (1237) fixed the boundaries with the Kingdom of the Scots with England.
January 1251: Border situation when the Majority of Munster (Ireland) fell under the control of England.
January 1251: By 1250, Tír Eoghain had reconquered part of its territories.
January 1280: During the Hundred Years' War, the city of Ponthieu changed hands a number of times, although the English claimed control of it from 1279-1369, and then later from 1378 until 1435.
March 1290: In 1290 King Edward I of England sent Walter de Huntercombe to take possession of the Isle of Man.
January 1291: In 1290, the island of Jersey became part of the Bailiwick of Jersey, a Crown dependency of England. This marked the beginning of the Channel Islands being governed as Crown dependencies, with their own unique legal and political systems.
January 1291: In 1290, King Edward I of England separated the Channel Islands from the Duchy of Normandy, establishing them as Crown dependencies under the jurisdiction of the Bailiwick of Guernsey. This marked the beginning of their governance as autonomous territories under the English Crown.
June 1313: The Isle of Man remained in English hands until 1313, when Robert Bruce took it after besieging Castle Rushen.
August 1317: The Isle of Man reverts to Scottish control.
January 1329: The isle of Man falls under the control of Scotland.
June 1333: The Isle of Man was held by the Scots until 1333.
January 1370: During the Hundred Years' War, the city of Ponthieu changed hands a number of times, although the English claimed control of it from 1279-1369, and then later from 1378 until 1435.
January 1376: From 1261, the weakening of the Normans enabled local Irish lords to reclaim large amounts of land that their families had lost since the Norman conquest. During this period, the lords of Tír Eoghain successfully reconquered their ancestral territories.
January 1379: During the Hundred Years' War, the city of Ponthieu changed hands a number of times, although the English claimed control of it from 1279-1369, and then later from 1378 until 1435.
January 1401: From 1261, the weakening of the Normans enabled local Irish lords to reclaim large amounts of land that their families had lost since the Norman conquest. During this period, the lords of Uí Failghe successfully reconquered their ancestral territories.
January 1401: From 1261, the weakening of the Normans enabled local Irish lords to reclaim large amounts of land that their families had lost since the Norman conquest. During this period, the lords of West Breifne successfully reconquered their ancestral territories.
January 1401: From 1261, the weakening of the Normans enabled local Irish lords to reclaim large amounts of land that their families had lost since the Norman conquest. During this period, the lords of Thomond successfully reconquered their ancestral territories.
January 1401: From 1261, the weakening of the Normans enabled local Irish lords to reclaim large amounts of land that their families had lost since the Norman conquest. During this period, the lords of Connacht successfully reconquered their ancestral territories.
January 1401: From 1261, the weakening of the Normans enabled local Irish lords to reclaim large amounts of land that their families had lost since the Norman conquest. During this period, the lords of Desmumu successfully reconquered their ancestral territories.
January 1401: From 1261, the weakening of the Normans enabled local Irish lords to reclaim large amounts of land that their families had lost since the Norman conquest. During this period, the lords of Airgialla successfully reconquered their ancestral territories.
January 1401: From 1261, the weakening of the Normans enabled local Irish lords to reclaim large amounts of land that their families had lost since the Norman conquest. During this period, the lords of East Breifne successfully reconquered their ancestral territories.
January 1401: Losses of the Lordship of Ireland by 1400 (based on maps).
January 1436: During the Hundred Years' War, the city of Ponthieu changed hands a number of times, although the English claimed control of it from 1279-1369, and then later from 1378 until 1435.
May 1461: In 1461, Connacht was conquered by the Lordship of Ireland, a territory controlled by England. This marked the end of Connacht's independence as it was extinguished by English rule.
January 1543: The Kingdom of Ireland was a client state of England and then of Great Britain that existed from 1542 until 1800 in the island of Ireland.
July 1543: King of Tuadhmumu submits to King Henry VIII of England, and is granted an earldom as Earl of Thomond.
January 1551: The Kingdom of Uí Failghe ceased to exist in 1550.
January 1581: During the period between 1580 and 1610, English settlers attempted to establish sugar cane fields in Macapá, Brazil. This endeavor relied on the use of enslaved Africans for labor, reflecting the widespread practice of slavery during that time.
January 1584: Sir Humphrey Gilbert, provided with letters patent from Queen Elizabeth I, landed in St John's and formally took possession of the island. Newfoundland became England's first possession in North America and one of the earliest permanent English colonies in the New World.
August 1585: Cautionary Towns: English possession of Flushing and Brill was confirmed by the Treaty of Nonsuch in 1585.
January 1586: The first colony on Roanoke Island was established by governor Ralph Lane in 1585. The Roanoke Colony was an attempt by the English to establish a permanent settlement in the New World. Unfortunately, the colony mysteriously disappeared, leading to it being known as the "Lost Colony."
January 1586: The kingdom of Airgíalla survived in Monaghan under the Mac Mathghamhna, until the end of the Gaelic order in Ireland.
January 1591: White returned to England, intending to bring more supplies back to his colony of Roanoke in 1588. Instead, the Anglo-Spanish War delayed his return to Roanoke until 1590. Upon his arrival, he found the settlement fortified but abandoned. The word "CROATOAN" was found carved into the palisade, which White interpreted to mean the colonists had relocated to Croatoan Island. Before he could follow this lead, rough seas forced the rescue mission to return to England.
January 1597: Desmumu extinguished by England.
January 1601: In the late 16th century, the English, who had successfully settled the area contesting claims by the Dutch, established a permanent plantation colony on Tortola and the surrounding islands.
Disestablishment
April 1654: In 1654, under the rule of Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell, the Ordinance for uniting Scotland with England was issued, leading to the creation of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland.
Selected Sources
Livingstone, M. / Witzel, M. (2005): The Road to Crécy: The English Invasion of France, 1346. Harlow (UK), pp. 107–225.
Sumption, J. (1990): Trial by Battle. The Hundred Years' War, London (UK), p. 505.
Tucker, S.C. (2011) Battles that changed History - An Encyclopedia of World Conflict, ABC-CLIO, p.126
Tucker, S.C. (2011) Battles that changed History - An Encyclopedia of World Conflict, ABC-CLIO, p.142
Tucker, S.C. (2011) Battles that changed History - An Encyclopedia of World Conflict, ABC-CLIO, pp.145
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