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Were a series of Wars between Rome (first the Roman Republic then the Roman Empire and finally the Eastern Roman Empire) and Persia (the Parthian Empire, and then its successor, the Sasanian Empire). The wars were ended by the early Muslim conquests, which led to the fall of the Sasanian Empire and huge territorial losses for the Byzantine Empire.
Chronology
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January 287: According to Armenian sources, in the third year of the reign of Diocletian Tiridates was invested with the kingdom of Armenia. Diocletian's panegyric attests in that same year to a treaty between Diocletian and Persia, in which the Persian king Bahram II presumably recognized Tiridates III as king of Armenia. The gifts received by Bahram II were interpreted as symbols of a Roman victory over the Sassanids.
January 294: Also due to a civil war in Persia, the rebels of Tiridates managed not only to free Armenia from the Persian yoke but also to penetrate Assyria. However, when the civil war ended, the new shah Narses was able to regain control of Armenia with a successful military campaign. Again Tiridates lost his throne and fled back to Roman territory.
January 348: The treaty of Nisibis stipulated the reestablishment of the Roman protectorate over Caucasian Iberia and Albania. But fifty years later Rome lost the area that since then remained an integral part of the Sasanian Empire.
January 523: In 521/522 Kavad lost control of Lazica, whose rulers switched their allegiance to the Romans.
January 542: Revolt in Lazica against the Byzantines, Gubazes II asks for help from the Persians. Persia successfully invades Lazica.
January 542: Sasanian general Cosroe digged a tunnel that allowed his army to reach under a tower of the Petra and set it on fire. With part of its defenses destroyed, the city surrendered to the Sasanians who entered triumphantly (541).
January 550: Persian protectorate over the region was established. However, the Shah of Persia's attempt to directly control the region and the missionary zeal of the Zoroastrian priests soon caused the discontent of the Christian population of Lazica. Gubazes revolted against Persian rule and asked Justinian for help, begging forgiveness for their previous quarrels which had caused Lazica to fall into Persian hands. The Lazi who crossed the river defeated the 1,000 Persian soldiers sent in advance and subsequently attacked their camp while they were still sleeping causing them to flee.
Was a Roman military invasion of Parthia under Marcus Licinius Crassus that ended in a catastrophic defeat of the Romans.
June 53 BC: Crassus, a Roman general and politician, decided to enter enemy territory from the south through the Syrian desert in -53. This decision ultimately led to his defeat and death at the hands of the Parthians in the Battle of Carrhae.
June 53 BC: The battle of Carre was fought between the Roman forces led by Crassus and the Parthian Empire led by Surena. It resulted in a devastating defeat for the Romans, with Crassus himself being killed in the battle. This defeat marked the end of Roman expansion in the East.
Was a military campaign by Mark Antony, the eastern triumvir of the Roman Republic, against the Parthian Empire under Phraates IV.
January 38 BC: After Syria was occupied by Pacorus' army, Labienus split from the main Parthian force to invade Anatolia while Pacorus and his commander Barzapharnes invaded the Roman Levant. They subdued all settlements along the Mediterranean coast as far south as Ptolemais (modern Acre, Israel), with the lone exception of Tyre.
February 38 BC: Despite these successes, the Parthians were soon driven out of the Levant by a Roman counteroffensive. Publius Ventidius Bassus, an officer under Mark Antony, defeated and then executed Labienus at the Battle of the Cilician Gates (in modern Mersin Province, Turkey) in 39 BC. Shortly afterward, a Parthian force in Syria led by general Pharnapates was defeated by Ventidius at the Battle of Amanus Pass.
2.1.Persian Invasion (Antony's Atropatene campaign)
Was the Persian invasion of the Roman Republic during Mark Antony's Parthian War.
March 40 BC: While Mark Antony was staying in Alexandria, the situation in the Eastern Roman provinces had worsened. Urged by the local potentates dethroned by the triumvir to invade Syria and Asia, the Parthians had decided to go on the attack. In February 40 BC. the Parthian army led by Quintus Labienus and Pacorus, the son of King Orodes II, crossed the Euphrates and attacked Apamea.
March 40 BC: The Parthians conquered Syria (with the exception of Tyre), and Anatolia up to Caria including Cappadocia, Commagene and Galatia
January 39 BC: A Parthian army led by Pacorus, son the Parthian king, invaded Palestine and reached Jerusalem.
March 40 BC: The Liberatores were defeated by the Triumvirs at the Battle of Philippi in October 42 BC.
2.2.Roman Counterattack
Was a Roman offensive against the Persian invasion during Mark Antony's Parthian War.
August 39 BC: The Parthians, outnumbered and taken by surprise, were heavily defeated at the Battle of Monte Amano, General Franapate himself was killed and the survivors fell back en route east of the Euphrates after abandoning all invaded territories.
September 39 BC: In August 39 BC. Publio Ventidio Basso marched rapidly against Quintus Labienus who, surprised by the arrival of the legions, beat a hasty retreat. The Roman army of Ventidius pursued him as far as Syria where the Parthian cavalry was pouring in to reinforce it.
August 38 BC: The battle of Monte Gindaro, fought according to tradition on 9 August 38 BC. anniversary of the Carre catastrophe, ended with a great victory for Ventidio Basso.
September 39 BC: Publio Ventidio Basso, a character of obscure origins but of considerable military ability, obtained important victories. In August 39 BC. he marched rapidly against Quintus Labienus who, surprised by the arrival of the legions, beat a hasty retreat. The Roman army of Ventidius pursued him as far as Syria where the Parthian cavalry was pouring in to reinforce it.
June 38 BC: In the spring of 38 BC. the Parthians attempted to take their revenge and a large army, personally led by Pacorus, crossed the Euphrates and again invaded the Roman province of Syria.
October 38 BC: In the meantime, Ventidio Basso had besieged Samosata, the main fortress on the Euphrates of the kingdom of Commagene. Mark Antony preferred not to prolong the siege operations of Samosata any further. He therefore concluded in September 38 B.C. the operations receiving the surrender of the fortress and accepting from the king of Commagene a tribute of 300 talents of silver.
2.3.Anthony's Invasion
Was the Roman invasion of Persia during Mark Antony's Parthian War.
January 36 BC: The Herodian kingdom of Judea was a client state of the Roman Republic from 37 BC, when Herod the Great was appointed "King of the Jews" by the Roman Senate.
October 36 BC: As his legionaries were tired and begged to return home, at the end of October, Mark Anthony decided to end the war with Persia.
September 36 BC: Marco Antonio then immediately marched with the legions and, after a forced march of four hundred kilometers, reached Phraaspa at the end of August without encountering much resistance.
Was a war fought between the Roman Empire and the Parthian Empire over control of Armenia.
January 59: Fall of Artaxata.
February 60: Shortly afterwards Corbulo decided to complete the submission of the newly conquered territories with a whole series of punitive expeditions against the regions still loyal to Tiridates. Some parts of Western Armenia were also ceded to Roman vassals. The definitive conquest of Armenia was celebrated by Nero who was hailed as imperator for the sixth time, while a Romanized prince, a trusted "client", was placed on the throne of Armenia.
December 62: The Parthians turned their attention to Armenia, and after two years of inconclusive campaigns, inflicted a heavy defeat on the Romans at the Battle of Rhandeia. The conflict ended soon after, with a formal compromise: a Parthian prince of the Arsacid dynasty would be installed on the Armenian throne, but his appointment had to be approved by the Roman Emperor.
January 60: Fall of Tigranocerta.
Was a military campaign by Roman Emperor Trajan in 115 against the Parthian Empire in Mesopotamia.
January 115: Trajan marched first on Armenia, deposed the Parthian-appointed king and annexed it to the Roman Empire as a province.
January 116: The Roman armies crossed the Euphrates from Syria, descended the River Tigris from the Armenian highlands and headed south against Parthia itself. Leaving garrisons in suitable places, Emperor Trajan reached Edessa, where he met Abgar VII, king of Osroene, who submitted to Rome.
January 117: After these successes, the Roman Emperor Trajan continued his advance and took possession of Babylon in 116 AD. Trajan visited the palace where Alexander the Great had died, highlighting the historical significance of the city as a major conquest for the Roman Empire.
January 117: Roman Emperor Trajan crossed the Tigris and entered Ctesiphon.
January 117: Characene conquered by Roman Empire.
January 117: At the end of this military campaign, Trajan decided to annex the new territories by creating the two new provinces of Mesopotamia and Assyria. Indeed, if Trajan's establishment of the provinces of Armenia and Mesopotamia is confirmed by the coinage of the period, the actual creation of the province of Assyria is more doubtful.
January 118: Armenia was then ordered into a Roman province by the emperor and remained so until his death (117), when it was abandoned by his successor Adrian. The latter adopted a policy of strengthening the old borders.
January 119: After the death of Trajan, Hadrian preferred to restore the imperial borders back to the Euphrates river.
January 116: With the beginning of the new war year, the Roman armies crossed the Euphrates from Syria, descended the River Tigris from the Armenian highlands and headed south against Parthia itself. Leaving garrisons in suitable places, Trajan reached Edessa, where he met Abgar VII, king of Osroene, for the first time.
January 117: The Roman commander, having a large abundance of ships and soldiers at his disposal, still managed to cross the river, then taking possession of the whole of Adiabene.
Was a war fought between the Roman and Parthian Empires over Armenia and Upper Mesopotamia.
December 161: In fact, the change at the top of the Roman Empire seems to have encouraged Vologeses IV of Partia to make the first move in late summer or early autumn 161, attacking the Kingdom of Armenia, an ally of the Roman Empire and installing a puppet king of his liking, Pacorus III, an arsacid like him.
January 162: The Parthians attacked the entire frontier of Cappadocia and Syria, defeated many of the local garrisons, bringing destruction even under the walls of Antioch and captured the border fortress of Edessa.
January 164: In 163, the Parthians intervened in Osroene, a client state of the Romans located in Mesopotamia, east of Syria, with the capital Edessa. They deposed the Roman client king, Mannus, and replaced him with their own client king.
January 164: Roman occupation of Dausara and Nicephorium.
January 164: The legions I Minervia and V Macedonica, under the command of the legates Marcus Claudius Fronto and Publius Marzio Verus, who served under Marcus Statius Priscus, achieved numerous military successes, penetrating deeply into Armenia, and inflicted a heavy defeat on the Parthians, conquering the Armenian capital , Artaxata.
January 165: In 164 AD, Pacorus, the Parthian ruler of Armenia, was deposed. The former Roman consul of Emesa, Gaius Julius Soemus, who had been deposed by Vologeses, was then crowned as the new tributary king of Armenia under Roman rule.
January 166: In 165 AD, the city of Edessa in Osroene was reoccupied by the Roman client king Manno. This event marked the reinstatement of Manno as the ruler of Osroene under Roman authority.
January 166: Avidio Cassio was a Roman general who served as the legatus legionis of legio III Gallica. Dura Europos was a strategic city located on the Euphrates River. The battle fought near Dura Europos in 165 AD was significant in the Roman Empire's campaign in the region.
January 166: Avidius Cassius reached the twin metropolises of Mesopotamia: Seleucia on the right bank of the Tigris and Ctesiphon on the left. Ctesiphon was taken and its royal palace burned. The citizens of Seleucia opened the gates to the invaders, but the city was burned anyway, leaving a shadow on the conduct of Cassio and the reputation of Lucio Vero.
January 167: Avidius Cassius was a Roman general and usurper who invaded the territory of the Medes, located beyond the Tigris River, in 166 AD. This demonstrated the military might of the Roman Empire under his command.
January 168: The Nisibis area remained part of the roman empire.
January 166: In 165 AD, the Roman forces, led by Emperor Lucius Verus and his generals, launched a military campaign in the East. They used a pincer movement strategy to capture strategic fortress-cities along the Euphrates, including Dausara, Edessa, Carrhae, and Nisibis, expanding the Roman Empire's territory.
January 168: The plague, which broke out during the last year of the campaign, however forced the Romans to withdraw from the newly conquered territories.
Was a military campaign by Roman Emperor Septimius Severus against the Parthian Empire.
January 198: The Siege of Nisibis in 197 AD was led by the Parthian Empire against the Roman forces defending the city.
February 198: The king of the Parthians, Vologases V, having learned that Severus was approaching Nisibis, decided to leave.
February 198: The king of the Parthians, Vologases V, decided to leave Nisibis upon learning that the Roman Emperor Severus was approaching in 198 AD. Nisibis was part of the territory of Osroene, a Roman client state at the time.
April 198: In 198 AD, Roman Emperor Septimius Severus spent the winter near the Parthian capital of Ctesiphon. In February-March, he decided to travel up the Tigris River to return to the Roman borders, after successfully securing all occupied regions except for northern Mesopotamia.
January 198: Severus, having built a fleet, traveled the Euphrates with extremely fast ships, where he first reached Dura Europos, continued to Seleucia which he occupied, after putting to flight the cataphract cavalry of the Parthians. The advance continued with the capture of Babylon which shortly before had been abandoned by the enemy forces and, towards the end of the year, also the capital of the Parthians, Ctesiphon, was placed under siege. The city, now surrounded, tried in vain to resist.
April 198: In 198 AD, Emperor Septimius Severus spent the winter near the Parthian capital before deciding to return to the Roman borders by traveling up the Tigris River around February-March.
January 194: 194-195: Adiabeni and Osroeni had rebelled against Rome. At the end of the war operations, the province of Mesopotamia was reconstituted.
Was a military campaign by Roman Emperor Caracalla against the Parthian Empire.
January 215: The ruling Abgarid dynasty was deposed by the Romans during the reign of Roman Emperor Caracalla (r. 211-217), probably in 214, and Osroene was incorporated as a province.
January 217: Emperor Caracalla invaded the Parthian Empire in 216 using an abortive wedding proposal to the Parthian king's daughter as a casus belli. His forces carried out a campaign of massacres in the northern regions of the Parthian Empire.
February 217: Emperor Caracalla invaded the Parthian Empire in 216 using an abortive wedding proposal to the Parthian king's daughter as a casus belli. His forces carried out a campaign of massacres in the northern regions of the Parthian Empire.
Was a military campaign by Sassanid King Ardashir I against the Roman Empire.
January 231: The Sassanid armies, led by King Ardashir I, invaded Roman Mesopotamia in 230. They besieged Roman garrisons along the Euphrates and attempted to conquer Nisibis, but were ultimately unsuccessful in their efforts.
January 239: It seems that during the reign of Maximinus the Thrax, the cities of the Roman province of Mesopotamia, Nisibis and Carrhae, were besieged and occupied by the Sassanids.
January 240: Sasanid conquest of Dura Europos.
January 241: Sasanian ruler Ardashir I finally managed to conquer and destroy the important stronghold city of Hatra, then occupying a large part of Roman Mesopotamia (including the legionary fortresses of Resaina and Singara, as well as the auxiliary fort of Zagurae, today's Ain Sinu), perhaps even arriving to besiege and occupy Antioch of Syria itself, as the fact that its mint stopped minting for the years 240 and 241 seems to suggest.
January 241: Hatra is besieged by the Sasanian Empire.
January 241: Sassanians occupied Caucasian Albanian around 240 AD.
May 241: Capture of Hatra by the Sasanians.
January 243: In the 3rd century, Ardashir I, marched on Oman and Bahrain, where he defeated Sanatruq the ruler of Bahrain.
February 240: Sasanid conquest of Dura Europos.
February 231: In 231 AD, the Sassanid armies, led by King Ardashir I, advanced into Roman Mesopotamia and besieged Roman garrisons along the Euphrates. They also attempted to conquer the city of Nisibis, but were ultimately unsuccessful in their efforts.
Was a military campaign by Roman Emperor Severus Alexander against the Sasanian Empire.
January 233: Roman Emperor Alexander Severus invaded Persia with various, occupying the Euphrates region (but not Seleucia and Ctesifon) and Media.
February 233: Roman Emperor Alexander Severus invaded Persia with various, occupying the Euphrates region (but not Seleucia and Ctesifon) and Media.
Was a military campaign by Roman Emperor Gordian III against the Sasanian Empire.
January 244: Arrived in Antioch (perhaps at the end of the previous year), which it seems he reconquered after falling into the hands of Shapur I, he crossed the Euphrates, repeatedly defeating the Persians, taking from them Carre, Nisibis and Singara (so much so that all three of these cities returned to mint Roman coins), then defeating them in the battle of Resena.
January 245: Roman retreat from the Persian territories of south-central Mesopotamia. In fact, the Sassanids did not conquer any other cities, besides Hatra, and Sapor did not undertake further military initiatives for the next eight years.
Was a military campaign by Sassanid King Shapur I against the Roman Empire.
November 252: Towards the end of 252, Sapor I resumed a violent offensive against the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire. The Persian troops occupied numerous cities in the province of Mesopotamia (including Nisibis itself), then pushed into Cappadocia, Licaonia and Syria, where they defeated the Roman army rushing to Barbalissos and took possession of Antioch itself.
January 253: Around 252, during the reign of Trebonianus Gallus, King Chosroes II of Armenia was killed at the instigation of the Sassanids. The Armenian Kingdom therefore became a Persian protectorate, while his Chosroes' son Tiridates found refuge with the Romans.
January 257: In 256 the armies of Sasanian Shah Shapur I removed important strongholds from Roman rule in Syria, including Dura Europos.
January 261: The capture of Valerian by the Persians left the Roman East at the mercy of Sapor I, who led a new offensive from his headquarters in Nisibis (occupied in 252 by the Sasanian army), managing to occupy the Roman territories up to Tarsus ( in Cilicia), Antioch (in Syria) and Caesarea (in Cappadocia).
January 261: Iberia became a tributary of the Sasanian state during the reign of Shapur I (241-272).
January 255: At the end of this new Sasanian incursion, the emperor Valerian was forced to intervene, managing to reconquer the capital of Syria, Antioch, that same year (253) or the following year (254).
Was a military campaign by Palmyrene King Odaenathus against the Sasanian Empire.
January 264: In 263, the Roman Emperor Valerian defeated the Persian King Sapor I near the Persian capital of Ctesiphon. This victory marked a significant moment in the ongoing conflict between the Roman Empire and the Persian Empire.
January 265: Odaenathus was a Palmyrene prince and Roman client king who led military campaigns against the Sassanian Persians. Ctesiphon was the capital of the Persian Empire at the time. The Roman Empire gained control of the territory after Odaenathus's successful campaigns.
February 265: Odaenathus was a Palmyrene prince and Roman client king who led military campaigns against the Sasanian Empire. Ctesiphon was the capital of the Sasanian Empire at the time. His second campaign likely took place in 265.
January 261: Margiana was formally annexed by Sasanian ruler Shapur I in c. 260 AD.
February 261: The praetorian prefect, Ballista, managed to surprise the Persians near Corycus in Cilicia and push them back as far as the Euphrates.
February 264: Roman Emperor Odenathus defeated the Sasanian Emperor Shapur I near the capital of the Sasanian Empire, Ctesiphon, in 264
Was a military campaign by Roman Emperors Carus and Numerian against the Sasanian Empire.
January 284: The surviving sources do not allow for a detailed or accurate reconstruction of Carus' military campaign against the Sassanids. They laconically report that the emperor devastated Mesopotamia, taking possession of the cities of Seleucia and Ctesiphon, and bringing the Roman army beyond the Tigris.
April 284: For unclear reasons the Romans withdrew from Persia.
Was a military campaign by Roman Emperor Galerius against the Sasanian Empire.
January 297: Narses, to punish the Romans for supporting the Armenian revolt, invaded the Roman province of Syria.
January 299: Galerius, advancing through the mountains of Armenia, won a decisive victory over the Sasanian king Narses.
January 299: Diocletian assembled a cover army in Syria, ready to go into action in an emergency. Taking advantage of the advantage, he took the city of Ctesiphon.
January 299: In the Peace of Nisibis while the Roman empire obtained control of Caucasian Iberia becomes again a vassal state.
January 313: Persian king Shapur II invaded Osroene.
February 313: The Romans conquer Osroene back from the Persians.
January 298: After two battles with uncertain outcome, the third battle (fought between Carre and Nicephorium or Callinicum) was a complete defeat for the Romans, following which Rome lost the province of Mesopotamia.
January 312: Massimino Daia had been forced to lead a military campaign in Armenia, against a people who in the past had proved to be allies of the Romans, but who now embraced the Christian religion, enemies of the emperor because they were extremely respectful of piety towards God. According to John Malalas ( which confuses Massimino Daia with Maxentius, son of Massimiano), Massimino conducted military operations victoriously, both against the Armenians.
14.1.Peace Treaty of Diocletian with the Sasanian Empire
Was a peace treaty between the Roman Empire under Diocletian (in the East) and the Sasanian Empire.
January 300: Diocletian and Galerius, after meeting in Nisibis, sent Sicorio Probus, one of their secretaries, to communicate the conditions for peace to the Persians. When the day of the audience finally arrived, Probus communicated the conditions for peace to the Shah: Armenia and Iberia became client kingdoms of the Romans; the border between the two empires is fixed on the Tigris river while the border between Armenia and Persia is fixed near Zintha, a fortress of Media on the border with Armenia; The Persians cede five regions beyond the Tigris. According to Peter Patrick, these were Intelene, Sophene, Arzanene, Zabdicene and Carduene. According to Ammianus Marcellinus, however, the five regions ceded would have been Zabdicene, Arzanene, Moxoene, Carduene and Rehimene. Narses only opposed the first point, which however he was forced to accept in the face of the firmness of the Romans. After the treaty was made, relatives who had been taken captive by the Romans were returned to Narses.
Was a military campaign by Sassanid King Shapur II against the Roman Empire.
January 335: In 334 the Armenian king was taken prisoner by Sapor II and taken to Persia, forcing the Armenians to invoke the help of Constantine I.
January 337: The son of the Sasanian king, Narses, managed to advance as far as Amida and occupy the Roman city.
February 337: Amida returned under Roman control.
January 338: It seems that during the year (probably shortly after the death of Constantine on May 22), the Armenians revolted against the Sasanid domain, driving them out of their territories.
January 342: Constantius managed to gain the loyalty of the ruler Arsaces II and of the Armenian aristocracy through diplomatic channels as early as 341.
January 360: Battle of Amida.
January 361: In 360 Sapor took the eastern fortresses of Singara and Bezabde.
January 361: Constantius decided that the war against the Sasanians took precedence over Julian's rebellion, and in the spring of 360 he began his own eastern campaign, occupying Edessa.
Was a military campaign by Roman Emperor Julian against the Sasanian Empire.
June 363: Roman Emperor Julian conquered Seleucia and visited its ruins.
June 363: The battle of Maranga in 363 was fought between the Roman army led by Emperor Julian and the Persian army of Sapor II. The Roman emperor Julian died during this battle, leading to the territory of Maranga falling under the control of the Roman Empire.
June 363: The Romans, led by Emperor Julian, entered Dura Europos, a city located in modern-day Syria. The city had been abandoned for years after being captured by the Sassanid Empire. Julian's conquest was part of his campaign against the Sassanids during his short reign as Roman Emperor.
June 363: After passing Macepracta, the Roman Emperor Julian and his army arrived in front of Pirisabora, a city in Mesopotamia. They besieged the city, which was eventually surrendered, looted, and burned down in 363 AD.
June 363: After passing the fields flooded by the retreating Persians, Emperor Julian set fire to Birtha, while his troops breached the fortifications of Maiozamalcha. This event took place during the Roman-Persian Wars, with Julian leading the Roman Empire against the Sassanian Empire.
June 363: Anatha conquered by Roman Empire.
16.1.Perso-Roman Peace Treaty of 363
Was a peace treaty between the Romans and Sasanians in 363 AD.
January 364: In 363, the Roman Emperor Jovian had to cede the territory of Corduene to the Sasanian king Shapur II as part of a peace treaty following the Roman defeat at the Battle of Ctesiphon. This marked a significant loss for the Roman Empire in the region.
January 364: After the emperor Julian was slain during his failed campaign in Persia in 363, Rome ceded control of Iberia to Persia.
January 364: In 363, the Roman Emperor Jovian had to cede the territory of Corduene to the Sasanian king Shapur II. Jovian was a Roman Emperor who ruled from 363 to 364, while Shapur II was the king of the Sasanian Empire from 309 to 379.
January 364: Armenia becomes again a Sasanian protectorate.
Division of Armenia between the Romans and the Persians.
January 370: Valente sent the general Arinteo to restore Pope to the Armenian throne already the summer following the first action against the Goths (in 369?), also at the request of the Armenian nobility itself.
February 370: Sapor invaded Armenia.
January 371: Pope again managed to escape and was reinstated by the Romans escorted by a much larger force in 370.
Division of Armenia between the Romans and the Persians.
January 385: In 384, the kingdom of Armenia was divided into two regions: the western one was placed, as a protectorate, under the Eastern Roman Empire, while the eastern one was entrusted to the Persians. The western region became a province of the Roman Empire with the name of Armenia Minor, while the eastern part remained an independent kingdom, even if only formally, under Persian control.
Division of Armenia between the Romans and the Persians.
January 429: In 428 the Sasanids deposed the legitimate ruler by establishing their own dynasty.
Was a war between the Eastern Roman Empire and the Sasanian Empire.
September 502: In August 502, King Kavad I of the Sasanian Empire easily captured the unprepared city of Theodosiopolis, which was a key Byzantine stronghold located in modern-day Turkey. The conquest marked a significant victory for the Sasanians in their ongoing conflict with the Byzantine Empire.
July 503: Siege of the important Roman border fortress of Amida. The defenders, although receiving no reinforcements, repulsed the Persian assaults for three months, proving to be a far more difficult target than the Sasanian ruler anticipated, but they finally gave way and the city fell.
September 503: Between August and September the Romans were besieged in Edessa by Kavad I.
January 507: A peace treaty signed in November 506 by the Eastern Roman Empire and the Sasanian Empire ended the Anastasian War. With the treaty, the contenders agreed to restore the status quo ante bellum.
October 503: During the year 503, the city of Edessa was besieged by Kavad I, the Sassanid King of Persia. The siege took place between August and September, with the territory eventually falling under the control of the Eastern Roman Empire.
Was a war between the Eastern Roman Empire and the Sasanian Empire over the eastern Georgian kingdom of Iberia - a Sasanian client state that had defected to the Byzantines.
January 526: Iberia, a Sasanian client state, defected to the Byzantines.
January 528: In 527, the Eastern Roman Empire, under the rule of Emperor Justinian I, occupied two forts in Persarmenia, Bolon and Farangion. This was part of Justinian's efforts to expand and strengthen the empire's borders in the region.
January 529: In 528 the Persians used the conquered bases in Iberia to penetrate eastern Lazica.
January 528: By 527 the Iberian revolt had been crushed.
21.1.Ethernal Peace (Byzantine-Sasanian Treaty)
Was a peace treaty between the Byzantine Empire and the Sasanian Empire that ended the Iberian War.
January 533: Eternal peace was signed in 532 and the Romans had to return the fortresses of Bolon and Faragion to Persia.
January 533: The Sasanian Persians recognized Lazica as a dependent state of Byzantium in the Eternal Peace of 532.
Was a war fought between the Eastern Roman Empire and the Sasanian Empire for control of the ancient Georgian region of Lazica.
January 552: The Byzantine commander Bessa put down a pro-Persian revolt by the Abasgoi tribe and took Petra.
January 552: The Sasanids conquered lazica.
September 556: In 556, the Eastern Roman Empire's allies, led by the Byzantine general Bessas, successfully recaptured Archaeopolis from the Persians. They also defeated the Persian general Nachoragan at Phasis, securing control of the territory for the Eastern Roman Empire.
January 557: In 556, the Byzantines, led by General Martin, successfully suppressed a rebellion by the Misimiani tribe in Lazica. This victory allowed them to drive out the Persians from the region, consolidating their control over Lazica.
Was a war fought between the Sasanian Empire of Persia and the Eastern Roman Empire. It was triggered by pro-Byzantine revolts in areas of the Caucasus under Persian hegemony.
February 573: The Sasanian Empire was captured by combined Armenian and Byzantine forces and direct hostilities between Byzantines and Persians began.
January 574: The Romans laid siege to Nisibis.
January 574: In 573, the Sassanid forces led by Khosrow I launched a successful counter-attack against the Byzantine Empire, capturing the city of Dara after a four-month siege. Khosrow I was the ruler of the Sassanid Empire from 531 to 579.
January 578: The Byzantines defeated the Persians at near Melitene and exploited their disarray by raiding deep into Caucasian Albania and Azerbaijan.
February 578: The Byzantines leave Caucasian Albania and Azerbaijan after a raid.
January 579: In 578, the Sasanian Empire, led by Adarmahan, launched a destructive military campaign in Roman Mesopotamia, causing significant damage to the region. This event marked a period of conflict between the Sasanians and the Romans in the area.
January 579: Corduene was a mountainous region located in present-day eastern Turkey and western Iran. Maurice I was the Byzantine Emperor from 582 to 602, known for his military campaigns and administrative reforms. The incorporation of Corduene into the Byzantine Empire was part of Maurice's efforts to expand and strengthen Byzantine territories.
February 579: The Persians, led by Adarmahan, launched a destructive military campaign in Roman Mesopotamia in 579. This led to significant losses for the Eastern Roman Empire in the region.
January 581: The Principality of Iberia was established shortly after the suppression of the Cosroid dynasty of the Kingdom of Iberia by Sasanian Persia, around 580.
January 590: Martyropolis, a city in the Byzantine Empire, fell to the Sasanian Empire in 589 due to the betrayal of the Byzantine officer Sittas. This event was part of the ongoing conflict between the two empires during the reign of Emperor Maurice.
April 591: Byzantine conquest of Dara.
September 591: At the Battle of Blarathon, near Ganzak, they decisively defeated Bahram, restoring Khosrow II to power and bringing the war to an end. Khosrow not only returned Dara and Martyropolis in exchange for Maurice's assistance, but also agreed to a new partition of the Caucasus by which the Sassanids handed over to the Byzantines many cities, including Tigranokert, Manzikert, Baguana, Valarsakert, Bagaran, Vardkesavan, Yerevan, Ani, Kars, and Zarisat. The western part of the Kingdom of Iberia, including the cities of Ardahan, Lori, Dmanisi, Lomsia, Mtskheta, and Tontio became Byzantine dependencies. Also, the city of Cytaea was given to Lazica, also a Byzantine dependency.
September 591: Khosrow II gives the Byzantine Empire most of Persian Armenia.
April 572: Early in 572, the Armenians under Vardan II Mamikonian defeated the Persian governor of Armenia.
February 574: The abrupt dismissal of the byzantine general Marcian led to a disorderly retreat from Nisibis.
January 573: The Persians retook the city of Dvin.
September 591: Persian Armenia was annexed directly to Persia.
Was the final and most devastating of the series of wars fought between the Roman Empire and the Sasanian Empire. The war was fought in Egypt, the Levant, Mesopotamia, the Caucasus, Anatolia, Armenia, the Aegean Sea and before the walls of Constantinople itself. After an initial phase of Sasanian conquest, the Byzantines were able to regain most of their territories. The war ended after a civil war broke out in Persia. After the war both Empires were so weakened that the Middle East and North Africa were soon conquered by the emerging Islamic Caliphate.
24.1.Persian dominance (Byzantine-Sasanian War of 602-628)
Were a series of Sasanian military campaigns that resulted in the conquest of large portions of the Byzantine Empire.
January 606: An army sent by Roman emperor Phocas against Sasanian Shah Khosrow was defeated near Dara in Upper Mesopotamia, leading to the capture of that important fortress in 605.
January 610: During the civil war in the Byzantine Empire, the Persians, led by King Khosrow II, seized the opportunity to expand their territory. In 609, they successfully conquered the frontier towns of Mardin and Amida in Upper Mesopotamia, further strengthening their control in the region.
November 610: By the time of Heraclius' accession the Persians had conquered all Roman cities east of the Euphrates and in Armenia before moving on to Cappadocia, where their general Shahin took Caesarea.
January 614: The Battle of Antioch took place in 613 outside Antioch. The victorious Persians were able to maintain a hold on the recently taken Byzantine territory. The victory paved the way for further Sasanian advance into the Levant and Anatolia.
January 614: In 613, the Roman forces, led by Emperor Heraclius, suffered a defeat against the Sasanian Empire at the Cilician Gates. This strategic pass was crucial for controlling access to the region north of Antioch.
January 614: The Persians captured Tarsus and the Cilician plain.
January 614: The cities of Damascus, Apamea, and Emesa fell quickly to the Sasanians in 613.
June 614: The Sasanian Empire, under the rule of King Khosrow II, conquered Jerusalem after a brief siege in 614. This conquest led to the fall of the Byzantine Empire's control over the region and marked a significant shift in power in the area.
January 623: In 622, the Sasanian Empire captured Ancyra, an important military base in central Anatolia, during the ongoing conflict with the Byzantine Empire. The Persians were led by King Khosrow II, while the Byzantines were under the rule of Emperor Heraclius.
January 624: Rhodes and several other islands in the eastern Aegean fell in 622/3, threatening a naval assault on Constantinople.
24.2.Heraclian revolt
The Exarch of Africa Heraclius the Elder and his namesake son Heraclius the Younger began a rebellion against the Byzantine emperor Phocas in 608. In October 610, Heraclius the Younger reached Constantinople, executed Phocas, and was proclaimed as emperor.
January 608: The Exarch of Africa Heraclius the Elder and his namesake son Heraclius the Younger began a rebellion against the Byzantine emperor Phocas in 608. In October 610, Heraclius the Younger reached Constantinople, executed Phocas, and was proclaimed as emperor.
24.3.Jewish revolt against Heraclius
Was a Jewish revolt against the Byzantine Empire during the Byzantine-Sasanian War of 602-628.
January 613: It was an insurrection of the Jews of Palestine against the Eastern Roman emperor Heraclius I engaged in the war against the Sasanids.
24.4.Avar Incursions
While the Byzantines were occupied with the Persians, the Avars and Slavs invaded the Balkans, capturing several Byzantine cities.
January 615: The Avars, a nomadic people from Central Asia, began raiding Thrace in 614.
February 615: End of Avar raid in Thrace.
January 615: While the Byzantines were occupied with the Persians, the Avars and Slavs poured into the Balkans, capturing several Byzantine cities, including Singidunum (Belgrade), Viminacium (Kostolac), Naissus (Niš), and Serdica (Sofia), while destroying Salona in 614. Other minor cities on the Adriatic coast like Jadar (Zadar), Tragurium (Trogir), Butua (Budva), Scodra (Shkodër), and Lissus (Lezhë) also survived the invasions.
24.5.Sasanian conquest of Egypt
Sasanian military campaign that resulted in the conquest of Byzantine Egypt.
January 618: Chalcedon fell in 617 to Shahin, bringing the Persians within sight of Constantinople.
July 619: According to the Khuzistan Chronicle, Alexandria was betrayed to the Persians by a certain Peter in June 619.
January 622: After the fall of Alexandria, the Persians gradually extended their rule southwards along the Nile. Sporadic resistance required some mopping-up operations, but by 621, the province was securely in Persian hands.
24.6.Byzantine Counterattack (Byzantine-Sasanian War of 602-628)
Were a series of military operations by the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius that resulted in the reconquest of most of the territories lost to the Sasanian Empire.
September 622: Heraclius threatened Persian communications from the Euphrates valley to Anatolia by marching to Cappadocia. This forced the Persian forces in Anatolia under Shahrbaraz to retreat from the front-lines of Bithynia and Galatia to eastern Anatolia in order to block his access to Iran.
December 622: What followed next is not entirely clear, but Heraclius certainly won a crushing victory over Shahrbaraz in the fall of 622. Thus he saved Anatolia from the Persians.
November 624: Byzantine emperor Heraclius and his army wintered in Caucasian Albania.
January 625: Byzantine Emperor Heraclius recovered Caesarea from the Sassanid Empire before continuing his campaign in the Caucasus region.
January 625: Heraclius left Constantinople to attack the Persian heartland. He advanced along the Araxes River, destroying Persian-held Dvin, the capital of Armenia, and Nakhchivan. At Ganzaka, Heraclius met Khosrow's army, then destroyed Adur Gushnasp. His raids went as far as the Gayshawan.
January 626: In 625, the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius bypassed Mount Ararat and traveled 200 miles along the Arsanias River to capture the cities of Amida and Martyropolis from the Sassanid Empire.
July 626: The siege of Constantinople by the Sassanid Persians and Avars, aided by large numbers of allied Slavs, ended in a strategic victory for the Byzantines.
December 627: With no Persian army left to oppose him, Heraclius' victorious army plundered Dastagird.
March 628: The Persian army rebelled and overthrew Khosrow II, installing his son Kavadh II as his successor. Immediately after ascending to the throne, Kavadh II initiated peace talks with Byzantine Emperor Heraclius. Under the terms of the resulting peace treaty, the Byzantines regained all their territories that had been lost, their captured soldiers, a war indemnity, and the religious relics that had been taken from Jerusalem.
August 626: The siege of Constantinople in 626 was led by the Sassanid Persian Empire and the Avars, with support from Slavic allies. The Byzantine Empire, under the leadership of Emperor Heraclius, successfully defended the city, securing a crucial victory.
September 627: In mid-September 627, Heraclius invaded the Iranian heartland.
November 628: Joint Byzantine and Göktürk operations were then focused on besieging Tiflis. Khosrow sent 1,000 cavalry under Shahraplakan to reinforce the city, but it nevertheless fell, probably in late 628.
Roman-Persian Wars
