Western Asia
Modern-day Countries in this region
Bronze Age
Mesopotamia was the cradle of some of most ancient human civilizations. The Sumerians established city-states such as Ur and Uruk, introducing cuneiform writing and ziggurat architecture. The Akkadian Empire was the first empire in recorded history, founded by Sargon of Akkad, uniting much of Mesopotamia. The Babylonians under Hammurabi established one of the first codified legal systems.
Southwestern Iran was home of the Elamite civilization. Anatolia saw the emergence of the Hittite Empire.
The region connected to the Indus Valley, Egypt, and the Aegean through trade in metals, textiles, and luxury goods.
Bronze Age Levant City-States
City-states that emerged in the Near East during the Bronze Age (3300-1200 BC).
Ancient Egypt
Coastline Changes
Important changes to the coastlines throughout History.
Bronze Age
Luwian-Aramean Polities
Luwian-, Aramaic- and Phoenician-speaking political entities in northern Syria and southern Anatolia that emerged after the collapse of the Hittite Empire (c.1650-1190 BC)
Mesopotamian Bronze Age
Aramean Polities
Polities founded by Aramean People in the Near East from the12th century BC until the Hellenistic period (4th century BC).
Ancient Egypt Wars
Cyprus Petty Kingdoms
Petty kingdoms that existed in Cyprus during Antiquity.
Phoenician Polities
All the Phoenician polities founded within Phoenicia.
Iron Age
The Iron Age was marked by the emergence of powerful empires. The Neo-Assyrian Empire (911-609 BC) dominated Mesopotamia and the Levant, employing advanced military strategies and administrative systems. The Neo-Babylonian Empire (626-539 BC) was famous for the Hanging Gardens.
The Levantine coast saw the rise of Phoenician city-states, masters of maritime trade and the creators of the alphabet.
The Iron Age Kingdoms of Israel and Judah emerged in the Levant, with religious traditions that would influence Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
Iron Age
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Classical Antiquity in East Africa
Mesopotamian Iron Age
Greek Poleis
Independent Greek poleis in the Mediterranean Basin between the 8th and 4th century BC.
Antiquity
The Achaemenid Empire (550-330 BC), founded by Cyrus the Great, became the largest empire of its time, covering Western Asia and Egypt. Zoroastrianism, a key Iranian religion, flourished under imperial patronage. Alexander the Great (330-323 BC) conquered the Achaemenid Empire, introducing Hellenistic culture to the region. The Macedonian Empire fragmented after the death of Alexander. Most of Western Asia fell to the Seleuicd Empire. By the 1st century AD the Seleucid Empire was reduced to the Levant and soon was inglobated by the expanding Roman Republic. Also Anatolia fell under Roman control. The rest of western Asia was instead the domain of Persian Empire, the Parthian Empire (247 BC-224 AD) first and the Sassanian Empire (224-651 AD) then. The following centuries were marked by the Roman-Persian wars along the borders between these powers.
Rome
Greco-Persian Wars
Greco-Persian Wars
Were a series of conflicts between the Achaemenid Empire and Greek city-states.
Ancient history
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Antique Greek Leagues
In Archaic and Classical Greece (between the Eighth and Fourth centuries BC), city-states often united into Leagues. Initially relatively democratic political organizations, in later centuries many were ruled by individual Poleis, some more powerful than others, such as Athens, Sparta, Thebes and Corinth.
classical period of Ancient Greece
Achaemenid Period
Fragmentation of the Odrysian Kingdom
Polities that emerged from the fragmentatione of the Odrysian Kingdom (2nd and 1st century BC).
Rise of Macedon
Wars of the Diadochi
Were a series of conflicts that were fought between the generals of Alexander the Great, known as the Diadochi, over who would rule his empire following his death.
Diadochi
Successor states to the Macedonian Empire (323-276 BC).
Hellenistic Period
Celtic Polities
All the Celtic polities that ever existed (covering Anatolia, Brittany, Ireland, Great Britain etc).
Seleucid Secessionist States
Polities that emerged during the dynastyc wars of the Seleucid Empire (312-62 BC).
Greco-Bactrian Polities
Greek polities founded in Bactria and Northern India during the Hellenistic Period (323-31 BC).
Parthian Expansion
Roman Republic Classic Wars
Roman-Persian Wars
Were a series of Wars between Rome (first the Roman Republic then the Roman Empire and finally the Eastern Roman Empire) and Persia (the Parthian Empire, and then its successor, the Sasanian Empire). The wars were ended by the early Muslim conquests, which led to the fall of the Sasanian Empire and huge territorial losses for the Byzantine Empire.
Roman Republic Internal Wars
Herodian Tetrarchy
Successor states of the Herodian Kingdom (37 BCE–4 BCE).
Principate Times of Rome
Roman Judea Wars
Early Barbarian Invasions
Year of the Five Emperors
Factions during the Roman Civil War during the Year of the Five Emperors (AD 193).
Gothic Wars
Were a series of conflicts between the Roman Empire and the Goths.
Crisis of the Third Century
Polities emerged during the crisis of the Roman Empire in the 3rd century (such as the Palmyrene Kingdom and the Gallic Empire)
Civil wars of the Tetrarchy
Factions during the Civil Wars of the Tetrarchy (306-324 AD).
Tetrarchy
Constantinian dynasty
Civil war of the Constantinian Dynasty
Polities ruled by the successors of Constantine The Great after his death (337 AD).
Late Roman Empire
Barbarian Invasions
Eastern Roman Empire
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Definitive Division of the Roman Empire
After the death of Theodosius I, the last Emperor of the whole Roman Empire, the empire was divided between his two sons in a Western and Eastern part.
Western Roman Empire
Battle of Avarayr
Was a battle fought on 2 June 451 on the Avarayr Plain in Vaspurakan between a Christian Armenian army under Vardan Mamikonian and Sassanid Persia.
Early Middle Ages
The wars between Persia and Rome continued also after only the Eastern Roman Empire survived the Barbarian invasions. In the the 7th century the Islamic Caliphate conquered most of Western Asia from the Romans and teh Persians who were weakened by the war. The Sassanian Empire eventually collapsed. The Byzantine Empire, centered in Anatolia, faced prolonged conflict with emerging Muslim powers.
Early Eastern Roman Empire
Early Middle Ages
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Avar-Byzantine wars
Were a series of conflicts between the Byzantine Empire and the Avar Khaganate.
Early Middle Ages
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Early Muslim conquests
Were the military campaigns by the first three Islamic Caliphates (the Caliphate of Muhammad, the Rashidun Caliphate and the Umayyad Caliphate) that led to the Islamic conquest of most of the Middle East as well as the Iberian Peninsula.
Arab-Byzantine Wars
Were a series of wars between a number of Muslim Arab dynasties and the Byzantine Empire from the 7th to the 11th century. Conflict started during the initial Muslim conquests, under the expansionist Rashidun and Umayyad caliphs, in the 7th century and continued by their successors until the mid-11th century.
Byzantine-Bulgarian Wars
Were a series of conflicts fought between the Byzantines and Bulgarians which began when the Bulgars first settled in the Balkan peninsula in the 5th century, and intensified with the expansion of the Bulgarian Empire to the southwest after 680 AD.
Maritime Republics
Thalassocratic city-states of the Mediterranean Basin during the Middle Ages. Founded around the 9th century, in some cases they lasted until the 18th and 19th centuries (Venice, Genoa, Ragusa).
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Abbasid Revolution
Was the overthrow of the Umayyad Caliphate (661-750 CE), the second of the four major Caliphates in Islamic history, by the third, the Abbasid Caliphate (750-1517 CE).
Rus'-Byzantine Wars
Were a series of military conflicts between the Kievan Rus' and the Byzantine Empire.
Iranian Intermezzo
A period in history which saw the rise of various native Iranian Muslim dynasties in the Iranian Plateau after the 7th-century Muslim conquest of Iran and the fall of Sasanian Empire.
Norse/Viking Polities
Polities created by the Norsemen in Europe and North America during the Middle Ages.
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Hungarian invasions
The Kievan Rus'
Holy Roman Empire
Polities that at some point were part of the Holy Roman Empire (962-1806).
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Conquests of Mahmud
Expansion during the rule of Mahmud of the Ghaznavids.
High Middle Ages
This period saw the rise of Turkic and Mongol powers in Western Asia. The Seljuk Empire (11th-12th centuries) was a Turkic dynasty that established control over Iran, Anatolia, and parts of Mesopotamia, fostering Islamic art and science.
The Mongols devastated much of Western Asia, destroying cities like Baghdad in 1258. The Ilkhanate, a Mongol successor state, ruled Iran and parts of Mesopotamia, blending Mongol and Islamic traditions.
At the same time the weakening of the Byzantine Empire triggered the Crusades. Western European countries and Maritime Powers conquered large areas of the Levant and established the Crusader states. However by the end of this period the Crusader state were all reconquered by local Islamic forces.
However, the Fourth Crusade (1204) led to the sack of Constantinople and the fragmentation of the Byzantine Empire. Western powers established the Latin Empire, and Frankish, Venetian, and Genoese rulers controlled various Byzantine territories, including the Duchy of Athens and the Despotate of Epirus. This period was called "Frankokratia" by the Greek population.
In 1261 the Nicaean Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos reconquered Constantinople and re-established the Byzantine Empire.
High Middle Ages
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Byzantine-Georgian wars
Were a series of conflicts between the Byzantine Empire and the Kingdom of Georgia.
Conquests of Tughril I
Expansion during the rule of Tughril I in the Seljuk Empire.
Byzantine-Seljuq wars
Were a series of conflicts in the Middle Ages between the Byzantine Empire and the Seljuk Empire.
Georgian-Seljuk wars
Were a series of military conflicts between the Seljuk Empire and its vassals against the Kingdom of Georgia.
Conquests of Malik Shah I
Expansion during the rule of Malik Shah I in the Seljuk Empire.
Crusader States
Feudal polities founded by Europeans in the Near East during the First Crusade (1096-1099).
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Anatolian Beyliks
Turkish principalities in Anatolia that resulted from the fragmentation of the Seljuk Empire in the second half of the 13th century.
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Crusades
The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and sometimes directed by the Latin Church in the Medieval period. The best known of these military expeditions are those to the Holy Land in the period between 1095 and 1291.
Conquests of Thoros I
Expansion during the rule of Thoros I in the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia.
High Middle Ages
Byzantine Fragmentation
Greek polities that succeeded the Byzantine Empire after the Fourth Crusade (1204).
Frankokratia
Polities created by Western Europeans after the 4th Crusade (1204).
Bulgarian-Latin wars
Were a series of conflicts between the Second Bulgarian Empire and the Latin Empire.
Mongol invasions and conquests
Were a series of military campaigny by the Mongols that created the largest contiguous Empire in history, the Mongol Empire, which controlled most of Eurasia.
Military Campaigns of the Nicaean Empire
Were the military campaigns of the Nicaean Empire, the largest of the rump states that succeeded the Byzantine Empire after the Fourth Crusade, aimed to reconquer the territories of the Byzantine Empire. The Nicaean Empire was succesful in the reconquest of Constantinople and refounded the Byzantine Empire, but the former territorial extent of the Empire was never achieved.
Persia after the Disintegration of the Ilkhanate
Polities that emerged from the collapse of the Ilkhanate in Persia (1335 AD).
Successors of the Mongol Empire
Polities emerged after the fall of the Mongol Empire (1206-1368).
Mongol Civil Wars
Were a series of wars between the successor states of the Mongol Empire.
Conquests of Michael VIII
Expansion during the rule of Michael VIII in the Byzantine Empire.
Late Middle Ages
Anatolia fragmented into several Turkish Kingdoms, the Beyliks, which were the successors of the Seljuk Empire. Timur (Tamerlane) established an empire centered in Iran, promoting Persian art and architecture. However soon the Ottoman Sultanate (and later Empire), one of the Beyliks, emerged as the dominant power in the region. The Ottoman Empire began to rise in Anatolia, soon expanding in the Balkans and in much of Western Asia. The fall of Constantinople in 1453 marked the end of Byzantine rule and a new Ottoman era.
In Persia, the Safavids laid the groundwork for a Shi’a Iranian state, creating lasting sectarian divisions in the region.
Late Middle Ages
Conquests of Orhan
Expansion during the rule of Orhan in the Ottoman Beylik.
Byzantine civil war of 1341-1347
Was a conflict that broke out in the Byzantine Empire after the death of Andronikos III Palaiologos over the guardianship of his nine-year-old son and heir, John V Palaiologos.
Late Middle Ages
Timurid invasions
Military campaigns of Timur (or Tamerlane), a Turco-Mongol conqueror who founded the Timurid Empire in and around modern-day Afghanistan, Iran, and Central Asia.
Bulgarian-Ottoman Wars
Were a series of wars between the Ottomans and the Bulgarians that resulted in the Ottoman conquest of the Second Bulgarian Empire.
Southern Arabia Petty Kingdoms
Petty kingdoms founded in Yemen in the early modern era and lasted until 1990 AD.
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Ottoman-Venetian Wars
Were a series of conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Venice
Ottoman Interregnum
Interregnum that followed the war with Timur (1402-1413 AD).
Ottoman-Mamluk Wars
Were two conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt that ended with the annexion of the latter by the Ottomans.
Caucasian Khanates
The Caucasian Khanates, also known as the Azerbaijani khanates, Persian khanates, or Iranian khanates, were various principalities established by Persia in the Caucasus from the late Safavid to the Qajar dynasty (from 1747 until the mid-19th century).
Early modern period
The early modern period was marked by the dominance of the Ottoman Empire and the Safavid Empire in the region. Frequent wars between the two empires shaped the region’s borders and sectarian divisions. At the same time the Arabian Peninsula was divided in several local tribal kingdoms.
Early modern period
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Ottoman-Persian Wars
Were a series of wars between Ottoman Empire and the Safavid, Afsharid, Zand, and Qajar dynasties of Iran (Persia) through the 16th-20th centuries.
Jelali revolts
Were a series of rebellions in Anatolia of irregular troops led by bandit chiefs and provincial officials known as celalî, celâli, or jelālī against the authority of the Ottoman Empire.
Conquests of Selim II
Expansion during the rule of Selim II in the Ottoman Empire.
Conquests of Murad III
Expansion during the rule of Murad III in the Ottoman Empire.
Dutch-Portuguese War
Was a global conflict between the Portuguese Empire and the Dutch Empire. The conflict primarily saw the Dutch companies invading Portuguese colonies in the Americas, Africa, and the East Indies.
Yemeni-Ottoman conflicts
Were a series of conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and Zaidi tribes in Upper Yemen.
Portuguese Restoration War
Was a revolution organized by the Portuguese nobility and bourgeoisie sixty years after the crowning of Philip I (Philip II of Spain), the first "dual monarch", that ended the Iberian Union.
Conquests of Aurangzeb
Expansion during the rule of Aurangzeb in the Mughal Empire.
Stuart Era
Anglo-Indian Wars
Were a series of wars fought by the British East India Company in the Indian Subcontinent that resulted in the British conquest and colonial rule of the region.
Early modern period
Conquests of Shahu I
Expansion during the rule of Shahu I in the Maratha Empire.
Russo-Persian Wars
Were a series of wars between Persia and Russia in the period 1651-1828.
Conquests of Nader Shah
Expansion during the rule of Nader Shah of the Afsharid Dynasty.
Civil War between Afsharid and Qajar
Was a civil war in Persia that led to the end of the Afsharid Dynasty, whose place was taken by the Qajar Dynasty.
Conquests of Ahmad Shah Durrani
Expansion during the rule of Ahmad Shah Durrani in the Durrani Empire.
French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Period (1789-1815)
While distant from the direct effects of the French Revolution, Western Asia experienced changes due to European pressures. The Ottoman Empire faced internal decay and increasing European interference. Napoleon led a military expedition in Egypt and the Levant.
At the same time in Persia, the Qajar Dynasty emerged, attempting to modernize while resisting British and Russian encroachments.
French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars
Were a series of conflicts between France and several European monarchies between 1792 and 1815. They encompass first the French Revolutionary Wars against the newly declared French Republic and from 1803 onwards the Napoleonic Wars against First Consul and later Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte. They include the Coalition Wars as a subset: seven wars waged by various military alliances of great European powers, known as Coalitions, against Revolutionary France - later the First French Empire - and its allies.
French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars
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Military Campaigns of Muhammad Ali
Wars that saw the partecipation of Muhammad Ali Pasha, the Wali of Egypt.
19th Century
In the 19th century the rivalry between the Ottoman Empire and Persia continued. At the same time the Qajars faced territorial losses to Russia and internal dissent. The Arabian Peninsula remained fragmented in tribal kingdoms.
With the rise of Zionism, the first wave of Jewish immigration in Palestine took place.
XIX Century
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Indian Princely States
Were states part of the British Raj that were governed by an Indian ruler rather than directly by the British.
XIX Century
From 1900 to the End of World War II
Western Asia underwent significant upheaval in the early 20th century. The Ottoman Empire, one of the central powers, was defeated during World War I. The Empire dissolved and was succeeded by Turkey in Anatolia. The Ottoman territories in the levant were partitioned between Great Britain and France. This period saw the establishment of the predecessors of the modern countries of the Levant (Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine)
In Iran Reza Shah initiated modernization efforts, reshaping Iran’s economy and infrastructure.
Most of the Arabian Peninsula was united by the Saudis.
Jewish people continued to settle in Palestine.
1900-1945
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World War I
Was a global conflict between two coalitions, the Allies (primarily France, the United Kingdom, Russia, Italy, Japan, and the United States) and the Central Powers (led by Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire). It was mainly caused by the competition of the western countries over domain in Europe and in the rest of the world with their colonial empires. The war ended with the defeat of the Central Powers. The war also caused the Russian Revolution and the ensuing Russian Civil War.
Unification of Saudi Arabia
Were a series of wars and events that resulted in the establishment of modern-day Saudi Arabia.
Italo-Turkish War
Was a war beteen the Kingdom of Italy and the Ottoman Empire caused by Italian colonial ambitions. It resulted in the Italian occupation of the Dodecanese and of the Libyan coast (the interior was nominally ceded to Italy but not under its control).
World War I
Bolsheviks (Russian Civil War)
Bolshevik territories during the Russian Civil War (1917-1923).
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Separatists (Russian Civil War)
Local secessionist polities during the Russian Civil War (1917-1923) that were neither communists nor whites.
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Whites (Russian Civil War)
Conservative countries - in many cases created with the support of western europeans, japanese and U.S. - during the Russian Civil War (1917-1923).
Russian Civil War
Was a Civil War in Russia that involved varios factions but mainly the Bolsheviks and the conservative White Army in the core Russian territories, as well as a multitude of local secessionist states. At the end of war the Bolsheviks were victorious and established the Soviet Union.
Turkish War of Independence
Was a series of military campaigns waged by the Turkish National Movement after parts of the Ottoman Empire were occupied and partitioned following its defeat in World War I. The war led to the establishment of the Republic of Turkey.
Syria after World War I
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Khuzestan separatist rebellions
Were a series of revolts by Arabs of Khuzestan against Persian authority.
Modern Kurdish Polities
Polities created by Kurds in the last 150 years.
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World War II
Was a global conflict that lasted from 1939 to 1945 (it started sooner in certain regions) between the Axis Powers (mainly Germany, Japan and Italy) and the Allies (mainly the Soviet Union, the U.S.A., the U.K., China and France). It was the war with more fatalities in history. The war in Asia began when Japan invaded China on July 7, 1937. The war in Europe began when Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. The war ended with the complete defeat of the Axis powers, which were occupied by the Allies.
Vichy France Colonies
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World War II
Cold War Period
After World War II the decolonisation wave led to the independence of the remaining British and French possessions in the area.
Israel took control of most of Mandatory Palestine in 1948. The West Bank was occupied by Jordan and Gaza by Egypt. The Arab-Israeli Conflict continued in the following decades. The 1973 Yom Kippur War resulted in Israel occupying the West Bank, Gaza, the Golan Heights. Also Sinai was occupied but soon reverted back to Egypt.
Western Asia was divided between pro-Soviet and pro-Western states.
The 1979 Iranian Revolution established an Islamic Republic under Ayatollah Khomeini. The Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988) devastated the region.
The discovery of vast oil reserves transformed the economies of Gulf states.
Cold War
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Partition of India
Was the partition of British India in two independent entities: India (with a Hindu majority) and Pakistan (with a Muslim majority). This included the several princely states that were dependent on the British Colony.
Arab-Israeli conflict
is an ongoing conflict between Israel and its Arab neighbours, as well as with Palestine, an area factually controlled by Israel itself. The conflict begun when the British Mandate in Palestine (a former Ottoman territory) was partitioned into an Arab and a Jewish state.
Indo-Pakistani conflicts
Is an ongoing conflict between India and Pakistan, two countries that emerged fromt he partition of British India in 1947.
Cold War
Post-Cold War Period (1990-2010)
Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait led to international intervention in the Gulf War (1990-1991). A U.S.-led coalition liberated Kuwait but left Saddam Hussein's regime in place, leading to years of sanctions and instability in Iraq.
The Oslo Accords (1993) led to the creation of the Palestinian National Authority in 1994, which was intended to govern parts of the West Bank and Gaza. However, hostilities between Israel and Palestine continued, particularly between Israel and the Gaza Strip. Periodic escalations of violence, including the Second Intifada (2000-2005), highlighted the fragile nature of peace efforts.
In 2003, the U.S. and its allies invaded Iraq under the false pretext of eliminating weapons of mass destruction and toppling Saddam Hussein’s regime. The invasion led to widespread violence, the rise of insurgent groups, and a prolonged occupation that destabilized the region further.
Post–Cold War era
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Post–Cold War era
Arab Spring
Initially a series of anti-government protests and revolts across the Arab world, it soon evolved into a series of wars. The wars caused by the revolts are sometimes referred to as the Arab Winter.
2010s and 2020s
The Arab Spring reshaped many Western Asian states. The revolts triggered Civil Wars in Syria and Yemen. Amidst the ensuing chaos, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) emerged, seizing large swathes of territory in Syria and Iraq between 2014 and 2017. This led to international military interventions and the eventual recapture of ISIL-held areas.
The Arab-Israeli conflict saw continued tensions, with periodic escalations in Gaza, ongoing settlement expansion in the West Bank, and the normalization of relations between Israel and several Arab states through the Abraham Accords in 2020.
The region faced numerous other challenges, including Iranian-Saudi rivalry, the ongoing refugee crisis, and the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. Turkey and Iran expanded their regional influence, while Yemen’s war turned into a proxy conflict involving multiple powers.
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