South America

Pre-Columbian Period

The first humans likely arrived in South America over 12,000 years ago, migrating from North America via the Bering Strait or coastal routes. These early inhabitants were hunters, gatherers, and fishers, with some groups later adopting agriculture. The earliest archaeological evidence of agriculture in South America comes from sites such as the coastal region of Peru, where the domestication of plants like quinoa and potatoes began around 3000 BC.

The Andean Civilizations (2000 BC-1500 AD)

By around 2000 BC, complex societies began to develop along the Andes mountain range in the western part of the continent. The Chavín culture (900-200 BC) is considered one of the first major Andean civilizations, known for its monumental architecture and religious practices. The subsequent cultures, such as the Moche (100-700 AD) and Nazca (100 BC-800 AD), left behind remarkable art, including the Nazca Lines, while the Inca Empire, which emerged around 1200 AD, became the most extensive empire in pre-Columbian South America. The Inca developed advanced systems of agriculture, engineering, and administration, with a vast network of roads, aqueducts, and cities such as Cusco and Machu Picchu.

The Amazon and Other Civilizations (1500 BC-1500 AD)

In addition to the Andean civilizations, the lowland regions of South America, including the Amazon rainforest, were home to complex societies such as the Tupi-Guarani in the coastal regions and the Arawak and Carib-speaking peoples in the Amazon Basin. These groups engaged in agriculture, fishing, and trade, with some developing unique practices such as the cultivation of manioc and the building of large communal houses.

Early modern period

The arrival of European explorers, particularly the Portuguese and Spanish, dramatically altered the history of South America.

In 1498, Vasco da Gama's voyage around Africa opened the Portuguese route to South America, leading to the establishment of Brazil as a Portuguese colony in 1500. Meanwhile, Spanish explorers such as Christopher Columbus (1492) and Hernán Cortés (1519) expanded Spain's reach in the Americas. The Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in the 1530s, led by Francisco Pizarro, secured vast territories in western South America for Spain, while the Portuguese controlled Brazil.

The Spanish and Portuguese forces imposed their authority over Indigenous populations through violence, forced labor systems like the encomienda, and the spread of Christianity, resulting in a dramatic demographic collapse due to disease, violence, and enslavement.

The colonial economy was based on the extraction of resources, particularly gold and silver in the Andes, and the establishment of sugar plantations in Brazil. Brazil became the world’s largest producer of sugar, heavily relying on enslaved Africans brought via the transatlantic slave trade. The Spanish colonies developed a system of encomiendas and later repartimientos, forcing Indigenous peoples into labor under harsh conditions.

Social hierarchies became firmly entrenched, with Europeans at the top, followed by mestizos (mixed Indigenous and European descent), Indigenous peoples, and enslaved Africans at the bottom. The Catholic Church played a central role in education and governance, and missions were set up to convert Indigenous populations.

Independence and Revolutionary Periods

The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815) destabilized European control over the Americas. With Spain weakened by the French occupation, South American leaders, such as Simón Bolívar, José de San Martín, and Bernardo O'Higgins, took the opportunity to wage wars of independence. Bolívar’s campaigns in northern South America led to the creation of Gran Colombia, while San Martín’s efforts in the south helped liberate Chile and Peru.

By 1824, most of South America had gained independence from Spain, though several nations, such as Brazil, achieved it without major conflicts. Brazil declared independence in 1822 under Emperor Pedro I, marking the beginning of the Brazilian Empire.

Following independence, South America experienced political instability and territorial disputes. The wars of independence often led to fragmented, unstable nations. In Argentina and Colombia, civil wars broke out between federalists and centralists, while in Brazil, the monarchy survived until the monarchy was overthrown in 1889.

The War of the Triple Alliance (Paraguayan War) (1864-1870) was one of the bloodiest conflicts in South American history, the Paraguayan War involved Paraguay fighting against an alliance of Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay. The war was sparked by territorial disputes and political conflicts, leading to the near destruction of Paraguay.

The War of the Pacific (1879-1884) was a major conflict between Chile, Peru, and Bolivia. The War of the Pacific was triggered by territorial disputes over valuable nitrate deposits in the Atacama Desert. Chile emerged victorious, gaining significant territory from both Peru and Bolivia, including the provinces of Tarapacá, Antofagasta, and Arica, which were critical to Chile’s later economic growth. Bolivia lost its access to the Pacific Ocean, which remains a significant geopolitical issue to this day.

By the end of the 19th century, most South American nations had largely consolidated the borders they have today.

From 1900 to the End of World War II

Many South American countries experienced economic growth during the early 20th century, driven by the export of raw materials such as oil, rubber, coffee, and agricultural products. This period also saw the rise of populist and labor movements. Countries like Argentina and Brazil began industrializing, leading to the emergence of new urban classes and the growth of political movements that sought social reforms.

The Great Depression of the 1930s had a profound impact on South America, as commodity prices plummeted, and economies struggled. The economic crisis led to political instability and military coups in several countries, including Argentina (where Juan Perón would rise to power), Brazil (where Getúlio Vargas established an authoritarian regime), and elsewhere.

During World War II, South American countries like Brazil and Argentina took sides in the conflict, with Brazil supporting the Allies and Argentina initially remaining neutral.

Cold War Period

The Cold War had a significant impact on South America, with the U.S. and the Soviet Union seeking to influence the region.

Several South American nations saw military dictatorships and authoritarian regimes rise during the Cold War, often with U.S. support or intervention. Countries such as Chile, Argentina, and Brazil experienced brutal military coups that led to the establishment of repressive governments.

By the 1980s, South America began to move away from military dictatorships toward democracy. Countries like Argentina, Chile, and Brazil transitioned to civilian rule, though not without significant social and political upheaval.

Post-Cold War Period (1990-2010)

The 1990s and early 2000s saw significant economic and political changes in South America, marked by the rise of neoliberal policies, regional cooperation, and continued efforts to combat poverty and inequality.

Several South American countries, including Argentina, Brazil, and Chile, adopted neoliberal economic policies, focusing on privatization, free trade, and foreign investment. These policies were met with mixed results: while some countries saw economic growth, others faced increasing social inequality.

The early 21st century saw a shift in political leadership across the continent, with left-wing governments rising to power in countries like Venezuela (under Hugo Chávez), Bolivia (under Evo Morales), and Ecuador (under Rafael Correa). These governments pursued policies of social reform, redistribution of wealth, and nationalization of industries, often in opposition to U.S. influence.

2010s and 2020s

Countries across South America have witnessed large-scale protests over issues such as economic inequality, corruption, and environmental destruction. In Brazil, massive protests in 2013 led to political changes, and in Chile, long-standing discontent over economic policies led to widespread protests in 2019.

The 2020s have seen the return of left-wing governments in several countries, including Argentina (under Alberto Fernández) and Peru (under Pedro Castillo). Meanwhile, countries like Brazil and Chile have experienced more conservative shifts, with right-wing leaders taking power.