Central Asia
Modern-day Countries in this region
Bronze Age
The Bronze Age saw the rise of advanced cultures in Central Asia, such as the Andronovo culture (circa 2000-900 BC). These societies developed metallurgy, agriculture, and livestock herding.
Settlements along the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers were part of trade networks that connected Central Asia to Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, and the Iranian Plateau.
Coastline Changes
Important changes to the coastlines throughout History.
Mahajanapadas
The Mahajanapadas were sixteen kingdoms or oligarchic republics that existed in ancient India from the sixth to fourth centuries BCE during the second urbanisation period.
Iron Age
During the Iron Age, Central Asia became home to powerful nomadic groups, such as the Scythians.
The region was influenced by the development of Zoroastrianism in nearby Persia, with fire temples and burial mounds reflecting its religious practices.
Central Asia served as a bridge between the Achaemenid Empire in Persia and the Chinese states.
Iron Age
Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods
Polities that existed in China during the Spring and Autumn Period (770-476 BCE) and the Warring States Period (453-221 BCE).
Mesopotamian Iron Age
Antiquity
Parts of Central Asia, particularly Bactria (modern-day northern Afghanistan and southern Uzbekistan), were integrated into the Achaemenid Empire.
The conquest of Bactria (329-327 BC) by Alexander the Great brought Hellenistic culture, creating Greco-Bactrian states that thrived as cultural and trade centers.
By the 1st century AD, Central Asia was a vital part of the Silk Road, facilitating trade between China, Persia, and the Roman Empire.
During late antiquity the Xiongnu and later the Huns dominated much of the steppe, influencing local cultures and displacing settled societies.
Achaemenid Period
Rise of Macedon
Ancient history
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Wars of the Diadochi
Were a series of conflicts that were fought between the generals of Alexander the Great, known as the Diadochi, over who would rule his empire following his death.
Maurya Expansion
Seleucid Secessionist States
Polities that emerged during the dynastyc wars of the Seleucid Empire (312-62 BC).
Greco-Bactrian Polities
Greek polities founded in Bactria and Northern India during the Hellenistic Period (323-31 BC).
Hellenistic Period
Eighteen Kingdoms
The eighteen fengjian states created in China by military leader Xiang Yu in 206 BCE. They would last until the Han unification in 202 BCE.
Early Empire of China
Parthian Expansion
Roman-Persian Wars
Were a series of Wars between Rome (first the Roman Republic then the Roman Empire and finally the Eastern Roman Empire) and Persia (the Parthian Empire, and then its successor, the Sasanian Empire). The wars were ended by the early Muslim conquests, which led to the fall of the Sasanian Empire and huge territorial losses for the Byzantine Empire.
Tarim Basin
Polities that existed in the Tarim Basin before the 2nd century BCE.
Early Middle Ages
The early medieval period was marked by the rise of powerful empires and the spread of Islam.
Turkic tribes began to dominate the steppe, establishing the Göktürk Khaganate (6th-8th centuries).
Arab conquests in the 8th century introduced Islam, which gradually replaced older religions like Buddhism and Zoroastrianism.
The region was dominated by the Samanid Empire in the period 819-999 AD.
Early Middle Ages
Early Muslim conquests
Were the military campaigns by the first three Islamic Caliphates (the Caliphate of Muhammad, the Rashidun Caliphate and the Umayyad Caliphate) that led to the Islamic conquest of most of the Middle East as well as the Iberian Peninsula.
Tang Era
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China-Tibet Wars
Were the many wars fought by the Chinese Tang Empire and the Tibetan Empire.
Wars of conquest of Muktapida
In the VIII century Muktapida, an Indian king of the Karkota dynasty of Kashmir, created a short-lived empire covering most of India.
Abbasid Revolution
Was the overthrow of the Umayyad Caliphate (661-750 CE), the second of the four major Caliphates in Islamic history, by the third, the Abbasid Caliphate (750-1517 CE).
Early Middle Ages
Iranian Intermezzo
A period in history which saw the rise of various native Iranian Muslim dynasties in the Iranian Plateau after the 7th-century Muslim conquest of Iran and the fall of Sasanian Empire.
Tibetan Era of Fragmentation
Polities that emerged from the collapse of the Tibetan Empire (618-842/848 AD).
Tibet - Era of Fragmentation
Was an era of disunity in Tibetan history lasting from the death of the Tibetan Empire's last emperor, Langdarma, in 842 until Drogön Chögyal Phagpa became the Imperial Preceptor of the three provinces of Tibet in 1253, under the Yuan dynasty.
Conquests of Mahmud
Expansion during the rule of Mahmud of the Ghaznavids.
High Middle Ages
Early in this period the region was dominated by the Karakhanid Khanate. Modern-day Afghanistan was dominated by the Ghaznavid Empire, spreading Islam and Persianate culture across the region and beyond.
The Seljuk Empire emerged as a powerful Islamic state, succeeded in the region by the Khwarezmian Empire, which controlled trade and commerce.
In the 13th Century Central Asia was conquered by the Mongols led by Gengis Khan.
High Middle Ages
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Conquests of Tughril I
Expansion during the rule of Tughril I in the Seljuk Empire.
Conquests of Malik Shah I
Expansion during the rule of Malik Shah I in the Seljuk Empire.
Mongol invasions and conquests
Were a series of military campaigny by the Mongols that created the largest contiguous Empire in history, the Mongol Empire, which controlled most of Eurasia.
High Middle Ages
Successors of the Mongol Empire
Polities emerged after the fall of the Mongol Empire (1206-1368).
Mongol Civil Wars
Were a series of wars between the successor states of the Mongol Empire.
Late Middle Ages
The late medieval period was dominated by the rise of Tamerlane (Timur) and his successors. Timur (1336-1405) established an empire centered in Samarkand, making it a hub of Islamic art, architecture, and science. The Timurid era saw figures like Ulugh Beg, a prominent astronomer, and the creation of monuments like the Registan.
After Timur’s death, the region fractured into smaller khanates.
Persia after the Disintegration of the Ilkhanate
Polities that emerged from the collapse of the Ilkhanate in Persia (1335 AD).
Late Middle Ages
Late Middle Ages
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Timurid invasions
Military campaigns of Timur (or Tamerlane), a Turco-Mongol conqueror who founded the Timurid Empire in and around modern-day Afghanistan, Iran, and Central Asia.
Early modern period
Central Asia entered a period of fragmentation but maintained its importance as a cultural and economic region.
Independent khanates like Bukhara, Khiva, and Kokand rose, competing for control of trade and resources. However, the emergence of maritime trade routes diminished the region's economic importance.
In this period the Safavid and Russian Empires began exerting influence, particularly in modern-day Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan.
Afghanistan was contested between the Mughal Empire, which controlled Kabul and the eastern regions, and the Safavid Empire, which dominated western Afghanistan. The 18th century saw the rise of local powers, most notably under Ahmad Shah Durrani, who established the Durrani Empire in 1747, considered the foundation of modern Afghanistan.
Early modern period
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Ottoman-Persian Wars
Were a series of wars between Ottoman Empire and the Safavid, Afsharid, Zand, and Qajar dynasties of Iran (Persia) through the 16th-20th centuries.
Conquests of Akbar the Great
Expansion during the rule of Akbar the Great in the Mughal Empire.
Colonization of the east
Were a series of military and exploration campaigns where Russia gradually extended into the territories of northeastern Asia.
Time of Troubles
Was a period of political crisis during the Tsardom of Russia which began in 1598 with the death of Fyodor I, the last of the Rurik dynasty, and ended in 1613 with the accession of Michael I of the House of Romanov.
Caucasian Khanates
The Caucasian Khanates, also known as the Azerbaijani khanates, Persian khanates, or Iranian khanates, were various principalities established by Persia in the Caucasus from the late Safavid to the Qajar dynasty (from 1747 until the mid-19th century).
Conquests of Aurangzeb
Expansion during the rule of Aurangzeb in the Mughal Empire.
Anglo-Indian Wars
Were a series of wars fought by the British East India Company in the Indian Subcontinent that resulted in the British conquest and colonial rule of the region.
Ten Great Campaigns
Were a series of military campaigns launched by the Qing dynasty of China in the mid-late 18th century during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor.
Conquests of Shahu I
Expansion during the rule of Shahu I in the Maratha Empire.
Russo-Persian Wars
Were a series of wars between Persia and Russia in the period 1651-1828.
Conquests of Nader Shah
Expansion during the rule of Nader Shah of the Afsharid Dynasty.
Civil War between Afsharid and Qajar
Was a civil war in Persia that led to the end of the Afsharid Dynasty, whose place was taken by the Qajar Dynasty.
Conquests of Ahmad Shah Durrani
Expansion during the rule of Ahmad Shah Durrani in the Durrani Empire.
Early modern period
Caucasian War
Was a series of Russian military expeditions into northern Caucasus that resulted in the inglobation of this region in the Russian Empire.
Conquests of Ranjit Singh
Expansion during the rule of Ranjit Singh in the Sikh Empire.
French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Period (1789-1815)
Central Asia was relatively insulated from the events of the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars. In this period, the Russian Expansion in Central Asia continued.
French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars
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19th Century
The 19th century marked the "Great Game," a geopolitical rivalry between the Russian and British Empires in Central Asia.
Russia systematically annexed Central Asia, incorporating the khanates of Bukhara, Khiva, and Kokand into its empire. Russian rule introduced railways, military garrisons, and cotton agriculture but disrupted traditional nomadic lifestyles. Local uprisings, such as those led by Alim Khan in Kokand, resisted Russian domination but were suppressed.
Afghanistan became a key theater in the "Great Game" between Britain and Russia. The First Anglo-Afghan War (1839-1842) ended disastrously for the British, but they maintained influence over Afghanistan’s foreign affairs. Under Emir Abdur Rahman Khan, known as the "Iron Amir," Afghanistan centralized power and established its modern borders, including the Durand Line with British India.
XIX Century
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Century of humiliation
A period (1839-1949) of foregin interventions in China resulting in the occupation, conquest or lease of large territories by foregin countries.
Indian Princely States
Were states part of the British Raj that were governed by an Indian ruler rather than directly by the British.
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Uprisings of Hazaras
A s eries of uprisings in the Afghan region of Hazaras.
XIX Century
From 1900 to the End of World War II
During the Russian Revolution several centralasian ethnic polities were declared in the area. However, all efforts of creating new states were suppressed by the Bolsheviks. Central Asia was divided in several Soviet Republics part of the USSR. These were the predecessors of the modern states of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and Tajikistan, which were created often disregarding ethnic and historical realities.
Afghanistan declared independence from British control over its foreign policy after the Third Anglo-Afghan War (1919). Under King Amanullah Khan, Afghanistan pursued modernization, but conservative resistance led to his abdication. The country remained neutral during both World Wars, focusing on internal stability.
1900-1945
1900-1945
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Chinese Warlord Era
Was a period in the history of the Republic of China when control of the country was divided among former military cliques of the Beiyang Army and other regional factions.
Bolsheviks (Russian Civil War)
Bolshevik territories during the Russian Civil War (1917-1923).
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Separatists (Russian Civil War)
Local secessionist polities during the Russian Civil War (1917-1923) that were neither communists nor whites.
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Whites (Russian Civil War)
Conservative countries - in many cases created with the support of western europeans, japanese and U.S. - during the Russian Civil War (1917-1923).
Russian Civil War
Was a Civil War in Russia that involved varios factions but mainly the Bolsheviks and the conservative White Army in the core Russian territories, as well as a multitude of local secessionist states. At the end of war the Bolsheviks were victorious and established the Soviet Union.
Chinese Civil War
Was a civil war fought in China between the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party. The war continued intermittently for more than twenty years, and overlappes with the Second Sino-Japanese War that started in 1937 with the Japanese occupation of Manchuria. The Communists gained control of mainland China and established the People's Republic of China in 1949, forcing the leadership of the Kuomintang-led Republic of China to retreat to the island of Taiwan.
World War II
Was a global conflict that lasted from 1939 to 1945 (it started sooner in certain regions) between the Axis Powers (mainly Germany, Japan and Italy) and the Allies (mainly the Soviet Union, the U.S.A., the U.K., China and France). It was the war with more fatalities in history. The war in Asia began when Japan invaded China on July 7, 1937. The war in Europe began when Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. The war ended with the complete defeat of the Axis powers, which were occupied by the Allies.
Cold War Period
Most of Central Asia was an integral part of the Soviet Union during the Cold War. The Soviets industrialized the region, focusing on cotton production, oil, and gas industries. The Aral Sea shrank drastically due to Soviet irrigation projects, creating an ecological crisis.
Afghanistan became a Cold War battleground as both the U.S. and the USSR sought influence. The 1973 coup ended the monarchy, and a 1978 communist coup led to Soviet intervention in 1979. The ensuing Soviet-Afghan War (1979-1989) saw widespread destruction, with U.S.-backed mujahideen fighters resisting Soviet forces. The Soviet withdrawal in 1989 left a power vacuum and civil war.
Cold War
Cold War
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Partition of India
Was the partition of British India in two independent entities: India (with a Hindu majority) and Pakistan (with a Muslim majority). This included the several princely states that were dependent on the British Colony.
Indo-Pakistani conflicts
Is an ongoing conflict between India and Pakistan, two countries that emerged fromt he partition of British India in 1947.
Afghan Civil War
Was a civil war in Afghanistan between the end of the 1970's and 2022 that included a series of related conflicts. The first phase of the civil war were two coups d'état that resulted in the establishment of the Socialist Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. In order to support the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, the USSR invaded the country. Two years after the Soviet withdrawal, in 1992, the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan was ended by the Mujahideen, an Islamic rebel group. This was followed by a conflict mainly between the Mujahideen and the Taliban forces (another Islamic militia). Until 1996 Taliban took control of Kabul and most of Afghanistan, and established of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. The civil war continued between the Islamic State of Afghanistan and the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, two governments recognized by different international actors. This phase was ended by the US-led invasion of Afghanistan in 2001. The invasion's goals were to capture or kill Osama bin Laden and al-Qaeda militants, as well as replace the Taliban with a U.S.-friendly government. With support of the US the Talibans were initially defeated and the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan was established. However, the Talibans started a counteroffensive and in 2021 recaptured whole Afghanistan and established again the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan.
Post-Cold War Period (1990-2010)
The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 brought independence to Central Asian states. Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and Tajikistan emerged as independent countries. Leaders like Nursultan Nazarbayev (Kazakhstan) and Islam Karimov (Uzbekistan) established authoritarian regimes. The region struggled with transitioning from a planned economy to market-based systems, though Kazakhstan thrived due to oil wealth.
In Afghanistan, The 1990s were marked by the rise of the Taliban, who established a theocratic regime after capturing Kabul in 1996. Their rule was characterized by strict Islamic law and international isolation. After the 9/11 attacks in 2001, the U.S.-led invasion toppled the Taliban, and Afghanistan entered a period of reconstruction under a new democratic government. However, instability persisted due to insurgent activity and corruption.
End of the Cold War
Post-Soviet Conflicts
Are a series of conflicts that are considered to be a consequence of the Dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.
Post–Cold War era
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Post–Cold War era
2010s and 2020s
The U.S. presence in Afghanistan continued through the 2010s, with NATO forces supporting the Afghan government. The Taliban resurged, culminating in the U.S. withdrawal in 2021, which saw the Taliban reclaim power. The rapid collapse of the Afghan government led to a humanitarian crisis, with severe economic and political challenges under Taliban rule. Afghanistan remains deeply impacted by ongoing instability and the aftermath of decades of conflict.
