Eastern Africa
Modern-day Countries in this region
Bronze Age
During the Bronze Age the Nile Valley saw the emergence of several early societies: Ancient Egypt, the Kingdom of Kush, the Kingdom of Kerma, the Land of Punt and the Kingdom of Aksum.
In Ethiopia and Eritrea, early societies began cultivating grains like teff and developing terrace farming techniques. These practices laid the foundation for the later rise of powerful kingdoms. Coastal areas along the Indian Ocean saw the beginnings of maritime activity, though evidence from this period remains sparse.
Ancient Egypt
Classical Antiquity in East Africa
Second Intermediate Period of Egypt
Polities that existed in ancient Egypt between c.1782 and c.1570 BCE.
Ancient Egypt Wars
Iron Age
The Iron Age saw significant technological and cultural developments in Eastern Africa. The Bantu migrations, which began around this time, brought iron-working technology, agricultural practices, and new languages to the region. These migrations reshaped the demographics and cultural landscapes of areas including modern Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania.
Neo-Assyrian King Esarhaddon conquered Egypt in 671 BC.
Iron Age
Antiquity
Egypt and Nubia fell under Persian rule before being conquered by Alexander the Great in 332 BC, leading to the establishment of the Ptolemaic Kingdom, a Hellenistic state that lasted until the Roman conquest in 30 BC.
This period was marked by deep ties with the Romans who not only conquered Nubia but also started an expedition to Ethiopia.
During late Antiquity Egypt was also involved in the Roman-Persian Wars. During the Crisis of the Third Century most of the eastern territories of Rome became indipendent for a short period as the Kingdom of Palmyra.
Northeastern Africa saw the establishment of early Christian Kingdoms.
Rome
Achaemenid Period
Rise of Macedon
Hellenistic Period
Roman-Persian Wars
Were a series of Wars between Rome (first the Roman Republic then the Roman Empire and finally the Eastern Roman Empire) and Persia (the Parthian Empire, and then its successor, the Sasanian Empire). The wars were ended by the early Muslim conquests, which led to the fall of the Sasanian Empire and huge territorial losses for the Byzantine Empire.
Principate Times of Rome
Civil wars of the Tetrarchy
Factions during the Civil Wars of the Tetrarchy (306-324 AD).
Tetrarchy
Civil war of the Constantinian Dynasty
Polities ruled by the successors of Constantine The Great after his death (337 AD).
Constantinian dynasty
Eastern Roman Empire
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Definitive Division of the Roman Empire
After the death of Theodosius I, the last Emperor of the whole Roman Empire, the empire was divided between his two sons in a Western and Eastern part.
Christian Kingdoms of Nubia
Christian polities founded in Nubia (nowadays Sudan) from the 2nd century until the Arab conquest (7th Century).
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Early Middle Ages
The Early Middle Ages saw the continued influence of Aksum in the north and the rise of new cultural and economic dynamics along the Swahili coast. Aksum began to decline due to environmental changes, shifts in trade routes, and external pressures, including the rise of Islam in the 7th century.
The spread of Islam along the East African coast fostered the growth of Swahili culture, a unique blend of African, Arab, and Persian influences. Coastal cities like Mombasa and Kilwa became important centers of trade, dealing in gold, ivory, and slaves. Inland, the Bantu-speaking communities expanded their agricultural and pastoral economies.
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Early Middle Ages
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Abbasid Revolution
Was the overthrow of the Umayyad Caliphate (661-750 CE), the second of the four major Caliphates in Islamic history, by the third, the Abbasid Caliphate (750-1517 CE).
Early Middle Ages
Polities of the Swahili Coast
Independent polities or protectorates on the Swahili coast before the organization of the area in european colonies in the 19th century.
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High Middle Ages
During the High Middle Ages, the Swahili city-states flourished as part of a vast Indian Ocean trade network. Cities such as Kilwa, Malindi, and Zanzibar reached their zenith, exporting goods like gold from Great Zimbabwe, ivory, and spices. The arrival of Muslim traders further integrated the region into the Islamic world, influencing language, architecture, and governance.
In the highlands of Ethiopia, the Zagwe Dynasty rose to power, constructing remarkable rock-hewn churches, such as those at Lalibela, and maintaining strong Christian traditions. This dynasty was succeeded by the Solomonic Dynasty, which claimed descent from the biblical King Solomon and Queen of Sheba.
High Middle Ages
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Late Middle Ages
The Late Middle Ages saw continued prosperity along the Swahili coast. Maritime trade expanded with the arrival of Chinese fleets under Admiral Zheng He in the early 15th century. However, internal rivalries among Swahili city-states and competition from new powers like the Portuguese began to challenge their dominance.
In Ethiopia, the Solomonic kings solidified their power, defending the Christian highlands against Muslim Sultanates such as Adal. The region witnessed dynamic cultural and religious interactions, as Islamic Sultanates in Somalia and the coastal areas sought to expand their influence inland.
Late Middle Ages
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African Great Lakes Kingdoms
Precolonial polities, which lasted from the 18th to the 19th century, in the African Great Lakes region.
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Anatolian Beyliks
Turkish principalities in Anatolia that resulted from the fragmentation of the Seljuk Empire in the second half of the 13th century.
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Ottoman-Mamluk Wars
Were two conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt that ended with the annexion of the latter by the Ottomans.
Late Middle Ages
Early modern period
The arrival of European powers marked a turning point in Eastern Africa’s history. The Portuguese, seeking control over Indian Ocean trade routes, established forts and trading posts along the coast, including in Mombasa and Zanzibar. Their dominance was challenged by local rulers and later by the Omanis, who expelled the Portuguese from much of the coast by the 17th century.
Omani rule brought a resurgence of Swahili culture and the expansion of the Zanzibar Sultanate, which became a center of trade, particularly in cloves and the slave trade. In Ethiopia, the Solomonic Dynasty faced conflicts with neighboring Muslim states and internal struggles, including the Jesuit-led conversion efforts during the 16th and 17th centuries.
The Ottomans clashed with the Portuguese and expanded their domain to several areas of the eastern African coast. However, the Portuguese were able to establish a large domain in Mozambique which would last well into the XX Century.
This period also saw the establishment of many small kingdoms in the Gibe region and in the Great Lakes Region. Also the Comoros and Madagascar saw the establishment of many local sultanates and kingdoms.
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Early modern period
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Abyssinian-Adal War
Was a military conflict between the Christian Ethiopian Empire and the Muslim Adal Sultanate from 1529 to 1543.
Conquests of Selim II
Expansion during the rule of Selim II in the Ottoman Empire.
Conquests of Murad III
Expansion during the rule of Murad III in the Ottoman Empire.
Portuguese Restoration War
Was a revolution organized by the Portuguese nobility and bourgeoisie sixty years after the crowning of Philip I (Philip II of Spain), the first "dual monarch", that ended the Iberian Union.
Conquests of Nader Shah
Expansion during the rule of Nader Shah of the Afsharid Dynasty.
Early modern period
French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Period (1789-1815)
Eastern Africa remained largely unaffected by the direct events of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic periods.
However, in this period many French insular domains like the Mauritius fell under British control.
French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars
Were a series of conflicts between France and several European monarchies between 1792 and 1815. They encompass first the French Revolutionary Wars against the newly declared French Republic and from 1803 onwards the Napoleonic Wars against First Consul and later Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte. They include the Coalition Wars as a subset: seven wars waged by various military alliances of great European powers, known as Coalitions, against Revolutionary France - later the First French Empire - and its allies.
French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars
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Military Campaigns of Muhammad Ali
Wars that saw the partecipation of Muhammad Ali Pasha, the Wali of Egypt.
19th Century
The 19th century brought profound changes to Eastern Africa. European colonial ambitions grew, culminating in the Scramble for Africa. Britain and Germany colonized much of East Africa, while Ethiopia and Liberia remained among the few African states to retain independence.
In Ethiopia, Emperor Tewodros II and later Menelik II worked to modernize the state and resist European encroachment. Ethiopia’s victory over Italy at the Battle of Adwa in 1896 was a landmark moment in African resistance to colonialism.
The Zanzibar Sultanate dominated coastal trade but faced growing pressure from British anti-slavery campaigns. The century also saw the migration of European explorers and missionaries into the interior, often paving the way for colonial rule.
This period also saw a military campaign started by Egypt that resulted in the conquest of modern-day Sudan and South Sudan.
The Omani Empire divided into the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman and the Sultanate of Zanzibar.
XIX Century
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Boer States
Countries founded by the Boers of South Africa in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Mahdist War
Was a war by Mahdist Sudan against Egyptian rule. The Mahdista were finally defeated by Egyptian and British forces, and Sudan became an Anglo-Egyptian condominium.
Egyptian invasion of the Eastern Horn of Africa
Was a conflict between Aussa, Oromo, and Somali tribesmen, and the Khedivate of Egypt from 1874 to 1885. In 1874, the Egyptians invaded Eastern Ethiopia and ruled it for 11 years.
Arab Polities of East Congo
Arab-Swahili warlords founded various countries in the eastern Congo Basin at the end of the 19th century, during the so-called Congo Arab War (1892-1894).
Franco-Hova Wars
Were two French military interventions in Madagascar between 1883 and 1896 that overthrew the ruling monarchy of the Merina Kingdom, and resulted in Madagascar becoming a French colony.
Conquests of Menelik II
Expansion during the rule of Menelik II in the Ethiopian Empire.
Italo-Ethiopian Wars
Were two invasion of Ethiopia by the Kingdom of Italy whose goal was to make Ethiopia a colony. The first invasion was not succesful, but after the second invasion Ethiopia became part of of Italian East Africa.
From 1900 to the End of World War II
Eastern Africa became a key battleground during both World Wars. During World War I, German East Africa (modern Tanzania) was the site of prolonged conflict.
In the Interwar period, Italian forces occupied Ethiopia before being expelled by Allied troops during World War II.
1900-1945
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XIX Century
1900-1945
World War I
Was a global conflict between two coalitions, the Allies (primarily France, the United Kingdom, Russia, Italy, Japan, and the United States) and the Central Powers (led by Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire). It was mainly caused by the competition of the western countries over domain in Europe and in the rest of the world with their colonial empires. The war ended with the defeat of the Central Powers. The war also caused the Russian Revolution and the ensuing Russian Civil War.
World War I
World War II
Was a global conflict that lasted from 1939 to 1945 (it started sooner in certain regions) between the Axis Powers (mainly Germany, Japan and Italy) and the Allies (mainly the Soviet Union, the U.S.A., the U.K., China and France). It was the war with more fatalities in history. The war in Asia began when Japan invaded China on July 7, 1937. The war in Europe began when Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. The war ended with the complete defeat of the Axis powers, which were occupied by the Allies.
Vichy France Colonies
World War II
Cold War Period
The Cold War era saw Eastern Africa’s decolonization and subsequent alignment with global superpowers. Most nations achieved independence in the 1960s, though the process was often tumultuous.
Cold War
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Congo Conflicts
Is a series of wars in the Democratic Republic of the Congo that started shortly after its independence from Belgium in 1960. The conflicts, that continue to this day, mainly consist of revolts against the central government caused by local ethnic secessionist movements.
Eritrean War of Independence
Were a series of related conflicts, part of the struggle for independence of Eritrea from Ethiopia.
Mozambican War of Independence
Was an armed conflict between the guerrilla forces of the Mozambique Liberation Front or FRELIMO and Portugal. The war officially started on September 25, 1964, and ended with a ceasefire on September 8, 1974, resulting in a negotiated independence in 1975.
Ethiopian Civil War
An civil war in Ethiopia that started in 1974. It consists of several related phases that saw rebel and secessionist groups fight against the Ethiopian government.
Postcolonial Africa
Bantustans
Self-governing homelands created during Apartheid (1948-1991) to segregate the black African population in South Africa and South West Africa (Namibia).
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Post-Cold War Period (1990-2010)
This period saw the Rwandan genocide, which occured during the Rwandan Civil War.
In this period the Somali Civil War started, which continues today.
Post–Cold War era
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Cold War
Somali Civil War
Is an ongoing civil war in Somalia. It started in 1991 and includes several related phases. .
Central African Republic Civil Wars
Is a series of related civil wars in the Central African Republic.
Post–Cold War era
2010s and 2020s
This period saw the start of several wars, like the South Sudanese Civil War and the conflict in South Kordofan and Blue Nile.
After 2010
After 2010
Sudanese civil war (2023-present)
A civil war between two major rival factions of the military government of Sudan, the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) under Abdel Fattah al-Burhan and the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces (RSF) and its allies (collectively the Janjaweed coalition) under the Janjaweed leader Hemedti, began during Ramadan on 15 April 2023.
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