Central Europe
Modern-day Countries in this region
Bronze Age
During this period, no organized political entities existed in the region. The only documented events involve changes to the coastline.
Coastline Changes
Important changes to the coastlines throughout History.
Iron Age
During this period, no organized political entities existed in the region. The only documented events involve changes to the coastline.
Antiquity
As early as the second century BCE, the Romans began expanding into Central Europe. This period saw Central Europe involved in some of the most significant events of Roman history.
Late Antiquity, on the other hand, was marked by barbarian invasions, which ultimately led to the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the establishment of Romano-Barbarian kingdoms.
Rome
Roman Republic Classic Wars
Ancient history
Roman Republic Internal Wars
Principate Times of Rome
Barbarian kingdoms
Polities created by Germanic people (and a few other like the Alans) during the early Middle Ages.
Year of the Five Emperors
Factions during the Roman Civil War during the Year of the Five Emperors (AD 193).
Gothic Wars
Were a series of conflicts between the Roman Empire and the Goths.
Crisis of the Third Century
Polities emerged during the crisis of the Roman Empire in the 3rd century (such as the Palmyrene Kingdom and the Gallic Empire)
Civil wars of the Tetrarchy
Factions during the Civil Wars of the Tetrarchy (306-324 AD).
Tetrarchy
Frankish Polities
Medieval polities emerged from the many divisions of the Frankish Kingdom (and later empire).
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Constantinian dynasty
Civil war of the Constantinian Dynasty
Polities ruled by the successors of Constantine The Great after his death (337 AD).
Early Barbarian Invasions
Late Roman Empire
Eastern Roman Empire
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western roman empire
Definitive Division of the Roman Empire
After the death of Theodosius I, the last Emperor of the whole Roman Empire, the empire was divided between his two sons in a Western and Eastern part.
Early Eastern Roman Empire
Western Roman Empire
Barbarian Invasions
Lombard Polities
Polities created by the Lombards in the early Middle Ages.
Early Middle Ages
The Early Middle Ages saw Central Europe transition from Romanized territories to a patchwork of emerging kingdoms and tribes. The Slavs expanded into the region during the 6th and 7th centuries, forming the cultural backbone of nations like Poland and Czechia. The Frankish Empire under Charlemagne (r. 768-814) played a pivotal role in shaping the political and religious landscape, with the introduction of Christianity and the creation of the Carolingian Empire.
This period was dominated by the expansion of the Frankish Kingdom but also by its hereditary divisions. These divisions were the origin of two of the most important political entities of medieval Europe: France and the Holy Roman Empire.
The Holy Roman Empire was established in 962 when Otto I was crowned emperor by Pope John XII, declaring himself Charlemagne's and the Carolingian Empire's successor.
By the 9th century, the Moravian Empire and the formation of Hungary under Árpád showcased growing state-building. The Magyar invasions of the 10th century disrupted the region but eventually led to the Christianization of Hungary and its integration into the European medieval framework.
Frankish Partitions
The Frankish Kingdom was partitioned and reuinited several times as the Frankish rulers used to divide their territories equally among their heirs. This lead also to a number of wars and revolts.
Early Middle Ages
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Avar-Byzantine wars
Were a series of conflicts between the Byzantine Empire and the Avar Khaganate.
Thuringians Secessions
Were a series of revolts by the Kingdom of Thuringia against Frankish overlordship.
Byzantine-Bulgarian Wars
Were a series of conflicts fought between the Byzantines and Bulgarians which began when the Bulgars first settled in the Balkan peninsula in the 5th century, and intensified with the expansion of the Bulgarian Empire to the southwest after 680 AD.
Maritime Republics
Thalassocratic city-states of the Mediterranean Basin during the Middle Ages. Founded around the 9th century, in some cases they lasted until the 18th and 19th centuries (Venice, Genoa, Ragusa).
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Invasion of Saxony
Were a series of invasions of Saxony by the Frankish Kingdom to impose them the Christian faith.
The Lombards
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Norse/Viking Polities
Polities created by the Norsemen in Europe and North America during the Middle Ages.
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The Franks
Early Middle Ages
Hungarian invasions
High Middle Ages
The High Middle Ages marked a period of consolidation and expansion for Central European kingdoms. The Holy Roman Empire, encompassing parts of modern Germany, Austria, and Czechia, became the dominant political entity. During this period, the Kingdom of Poland and the Duchy of Bohemia emerged as influential powers.
This period saw the expansion of the Germans in the East, with the creation of several new German States through the Northern Crusades.
The end of the period was characterized by the Mongol Invasions.
High Middle Ages
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Viking Era in Britain
The Kievan Rus'
High Middle Ages
Crusades
The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and sometimes directed by the Latin Church in the Medieval period. The best known of these military expeditions are those to the Holy Land in the period between 1095 and 1291.
Russian Principalities
Polities that emerged from the fragmentation of the Kievan Rus' from around 1240 AD.
Confederation of the Rhine
Polities that at some point were part of the Confederation of the Rhine (1806-1813).
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Danish invasion of northern Germany (1201)
Was the invasion of northern Germany by king Canute VI of Denmark caused by disagreement with Adolf III, Count of Schauenburg and Holstein, over the possession of the island of Rügen.
Mongol invasions and conquests
Were a series of military campaigny by the Mongols that created the largest contiguous Empire in history, the Mongol Empire, which controlled most of Eurasia.
States emerged from the Northern Crusades
States founded during the Northern Crusades (12th and 13th century).
Prussian uprisings
Were a series of uprisings by the Old Prussians, a Baltic tribe, against the rule of the Teutonic Knighsts that had conquered Prussia and its nearby regions.
War of the Thuringian Succession
Was a military conflict over the succession in the Landgraviate of Thuringia.
Successors of the Mongol Empire
Polities emerged after the fall of the Mongol Empire (1206-1368).
Mongol Civil Wars
Were a series of wars between the successor states of the Mongol Empire.
Late Middle Ages
The late Middle Ages saw the start of several wars that would also be characteristic of the modern period, like the Polish-Teutonic Wars, the Muscovite-Lithuanian Wars, the Italian Wars, and the Polish-Ottoman Wars.
At the end of the Middle Ages the House of Habsburg was able to consolidate its power in the Holy Roman Empire.
Late Middle Ages
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Polish-Teutonic Wars
Were a series of Wars between the Teutonic Order and the Kingdom of Poland. .
Wars of the Rügen Succession
Was a war between the Duchies of Meckelenburg and Pomerania over the succession of the Principality of Rügen.
Galicia-Volhynia Wars
Were several wars fought in the years 1340-1392 over the succession in the Kingdom of Galicia-Volhynia.
Muscovite-Lithuanian Wars
Were a series of wars between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Grand Duchy of Moscow (later the Tsardom of Russia).
Wars of the Guelderian Succession
Were a series of wars over the succession of the Duchy of Gueldria.
European wars of religion
Were a series of wars in Europe (and the overseas possessions of European countries) the 16th, 17th and early 18th that started after the Protestant Reformation. Although the immediate causes of the wars were religious, the motives were complex and also included territorial ambitions.
Old Zürich War
Was a conflict between the canton of Zurich and the other seven cantons of the Old Swiss Confederacy over the succession to the Count of Toggenburg.
Polish-Ottoman Wars
Were a series of Wars between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire.
Anatolian Beyliks
Turkish principalities in Anatolia that resulted from the fragmentation of the Seljuk Empire in the second half of the 13th century.
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Bohemian War (1468-78)
Was a war that began when the Kingdom of Bohemia was invaded by the king of Hungary, Matthias Corvinus.
War of the Succession of Stettin
Was a conflict between the Dukes of Pomerania and the Elector of Brandenburg. It started in 1464, after the death of Duke Otto III, the last Duke of Pomerania-Stettin. The Dukes of Pomerania-Wolgast, Eric II and Wartislaw X, held that they were Otto's rightful heirs. Elector Frederick II of Brandenburg held that Pomerania-Stettin was a fief of Brandenburg.
Bundschuh movement
Were a series of localized peasant rebellions in southwestern Germany.
Late Middle Ages
Italian Wars
Were a series of conflicts covering the period between 1494 to 1559, fought mostly in the Italian peninsula, but later expanding into Flanders, the Rhineland and the Mediterranean Sea. The primary belligerents were the Valois kings of France, and their Habsburg opponents in the Holy Roman Empire and Spain.
Early modern period
At the beginning of the modern era, the Protestant Reformation triggered the Wars of Religion.
This period also saw several wars that were for the first time world wars, including the War of the Spanish Succession, the War of the Polish Succession, and the War of the Austrian Succession.
The Balkans saw several centuries of wars between the Habsburgs and the Ottomans. The Habsburgs were eventually able to reconquer Hungary.
Prussia and Habsburg Austria emerged as the dominant German states. Prussia was able to conquer Silesia from the Austrians.
The borders of northeastern Europe wereshaped by the Northern Wars.
This period saw the establishment of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which was one of the largest countries in Europe at the time. However, at the end of the modern era Poland-Lithuania was partitioned between Russia, Prussia and Austria.
Early modern period
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Ottoman-Habsburg Wars
Were a series of conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburg Domains. The conflicts started with the partition of Hungary between the Ottomans and the Habsburgs after the Battle of Mohács (1526).
Northern Wars
A series of wars fought in northern and northeastern Europe from the 16th to the 18th century.
Conquests of Selim II
Expansion during the rule of Selim II in the Ottoman Empire.
Conquests of Murad III
Expansion during the rule of Murad III in the Ottoman Empire.
Tatar invasions of Europe in the XVI and XVII centuries.
The Crimean Tatars repeatedly undertook campaigns to Central Europe and Russia in the XVI and XVII centuries.
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War of the Jülich Succession
Was a war of succession in the United Duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg between Brandenburg and the Palatinate.
Franco-Dutch War
Was a war between the Kingdom of France and the Dutch Republic.
War of the Spanish Succession
The death of childless Charles II of Spain in November 1700 led to a struggle for control of the Spanish Empire between his heirs, Philip of Anjou and Charles of Austria, and their respective supporters. It was a global war, with fighting taking place in Europe, Asia, and America. At the end of the war, Philip II, who was the successor chosen by Charles II as a descendant of Charles' paternal half-sister Maria Theresa, became King of Spain and of its overseas empire. The Spanish possessions in Europe were partitioned between various European Monarchies.
Early modern period
Saltpeter Wars
Were three conflicts among the peasants of the County of Hauenstein, the Abbey of Saint Blaise (Sankt Blasien) and the Austrian monarchy.
War of the Polish Succession
Was a major European conflict sparked by a Polish civil war over the succession to Augustus II of Poland.
War of the Austrian Succession
Was a European conflict caused by the succession to the Habsburg Domains. Maria Theresa succeeded her father Charles VI, and the opposition to female inheritance of the throne was a pretext for starting a war. It was a global conflict that saw fight in Europe, Asia, America and Africa.
Silesian Wars
Were a series of wars between the Habsburg Domains and Prussia for the control of Silesia. The war started during the War of the Austrian Succession, when Frederick the Great of Prussia invaded Habsburg-held Silesia.
Seven Years' War
Was a global conflict that involved most of the European great powers, and was fought primarily in Europe, the Americas, and Asia-Pacific. At the end of the war the main winner was Great Britain, that obtained territories in North America, the Caribbean and India, becoming the most powerful maritime and colonial of the European powers.
Partitions of Poland
Were three partitions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth that took place toward the end of the 18th century and ended the existence of the state. The partitions were conducted by the Habsburg monarchy, the Kingdom of Prussia, and the Russian Empire.
French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Period (1789-1815)
Central Europe experienced upheaval during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. The dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, replaced by the Confederation of the Rhine under Napoleon’s influence, marked a significant turning point. Napoleon's campaigns reshaped borders, diminished Habsburg power, and introduced modern legal codes.
This period saw the creation of political entities aligned with the French. An independent Polish state, the Duchy of Warsaw, was re-established but again dissolved at the end of the Napoleonic period.
Napoleon’s defeat at Waterloo (1815) and the Congress of Vienna restored traditional monarchies.
French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars
Sister Republic
Created by the french during the French Revolutionary Wars (1792-1802).
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French Revolutionary States
Polities created during the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars by France. It includes also principalities created in Germany in the Napoleonic era but not German polities that already existed and just changed name or form.
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Napoleonic Polities
Napoleonic creations. It includes also principalities created in Germany but not German polities that already existed and just changed name or form.
French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars
Were a series of conflicts between France and several European monarchies between 1792 and 1815. They encompass first the French Revolutionary Wars against the newly declared French Republic and from 1803 onwards the Napoleonic Wars against First Consul and later Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte. They include the Coalition Wars as a subset: seven wars waged by various military alliances of great European powers, known as Coalitions, against Revolutionary France - later the First French Empire - and its allies.
19th Century
With the defeat of Napoloen in 1815, the Confederation of the Rhine was replaced by the German Confederation. The Confederation was again dominated by Austria and Prussia. Eventually, Prussia was able to unite most of the German-speaking states with the excpetion of Austria into the German Empire in 1871. Austria evolved into the Dual Monarchy of Austria and Hungary.
In 1815 Poland was again partitioned among Russia, Prussia and Austria. This resulted in the establishment of several autonomous Polish polities. However, by the mid of the XIX Century these polities were completely annexed and lost their autonomy.
Polish Polities after the Congress of Vienna
Polish polities created after the Congress of Vienna (1815).
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XIX Century
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XIX Century
Revolutions of 1848
Was a revolutionary wave in Europe that started in France. The revolutions were essentially democratic and liberal in nature, with the aim of removing the old monarchical structures and creating independent nation-states, as envisioned by romantic nationalism.
Schleswig Wars
Were two wars caused by the Schleswig-Holstein question (a series of issues deriving from the status of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein to the Danish Crown and to the German Confederation).
Wars of Italian Unification
Was a series of conflicts that led to the unification of the Italian Peninsula into the Kingdom of Italy. It includes the three wars considered the three independency wars of Italy, in addition to a series of military operations like the Expedition of the Thousand and the Sardinian military campaign in Central Italy.
German Unification Wars
Were a series of wars that resulted in the creation of the German Empire under Prussian leadership in 1871.
From 1900 to the End of World War II
The early 20th century brought intense conflict and transformation. World War I (1914-1918) led to the collapse of Austria-Hungary and the German Empire, resulting in new states like Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Yugoslavia.
The interwar period saw the rise of authoritarian regimes, culminating in World War II (1939-1945). Nazi Germany, under Adolf Hitler, annexed Austria and invaded Poland, triggering the war.
World War I
Was a global conflict between two coalitions, the Allies (primarily France, the United Kingdom, Russia, Italy, Japan, and the United States) and the Central Powers (led by Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire). It was mainly caused by the competition of the western countries over domain in Europe and in the rest of the world with their colonial empires. The war ended with the defeat of the Central Powers. The war also caused the Russian Revolution and the ensuing Russian Civil War.
1900-1945
World War I
1900-1945
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Russian Civil War
Was a Civil War in Russia that involved varios factions but mainly the Bolsheviks and the conservative White Army in the core Russian territories, as well as a multitude of local secessionist states. At the end of war the Bolsheviks were victorious and established the Soviet Union.
Austria-Hungary Fragmentation
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Baltic States
Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania through the 20th and 21st centuries.
Germany after World War I
Separatists (Russian Civil War)
Local secessionist polities during the Russian Civil War (1917-1923) that were neither communists nor whites.
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Soviet Republics in Germany after World War I
Short-lived and unrecognised socialist states founded during the German Revolution (1918-1919).
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Warsaw Pact
Countries that at some point where part of the Warsaw Pact (1955-1991).
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World War II
Was a global conflict that lasted from 1939 to 1945 (it started sooner in certain regions) between the Axis Powers (mainly Germany, Japan and Italy) and the Allies (mainly the Soviet Union, the U.S.A., the U.K., China and France). It was the war with more fatalities in history. The war in Asia began when Japan invaded China on July 7, 1937. The war in Europe began when Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. The war ended with the complete defeat of the Axis powers, which were occupied by the Allies.
Dismemberement of Czechoslovakia
On 29 September, the Munich Agreement was signed by Germany, Italy, France, and Britain. The Munich Agreement stipulated that Czechoslovakia must cede Sudeten territory to Germany. Germany dismembered Czechoslovakia.
World War II
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Vichy France Colonies
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Cold War Period
After World War II, Central Europe was divided by the Iron Curtain. Eastern Central Europe (e.g., Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary) fell under Soviet influence, becoming communist states within the Eastern Bloc. West Germany emerged as a democratic ally of the West, while East Germany remained a Soviet satellite.
The 1956 Hungarian Revolution and the 1968 Prague Spring exemplified resistance to Soviet control, but both were suppressed. The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the collapse of communism marked the end of this era, paving the way for democratic transitions.
Cold War
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Cold War
Post–Cold War era
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Post-Cold War Period (1990-2010)
With the end of the Cold War, Germany reunited. Countries like Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic joined NATO and the European Union, embracing market economies and democratic governance. The dissolution of Czechoslovakia (1993) into the Czech Republic and Slovakia occurred peacefully.
End of the Cold War
Post–Cold War era
2010s and 2020s
In the 2010s, Central Europe grappled with global challenges, including migration crises, populism, and economic disparities. Poland and Hungary faced criticism for democratic backsliding, while other states maintained closer EU alignment.
The COVID-19 pandemic tested the region's resilience, but recovery highlighted its integration into global markets. Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in 2022 brought renewed focus on Central Europe’s strategic importance, leading to increased NATO cooperation and a strengthened EU presence.
