Indian Subcontinent
Modern-day Countries in this region
Bronze Age
The Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent was dominated by the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300-1300 BC), one of the world's earliest urban cultures, with major cities such as Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, and Lothal. These cities exhibited advanced town planning, including drainage systems and standardized weights.
Indus Valley Civilization City-States
All the city-states that existed during the Indus Civilization from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE.
Coastline Changes
Important changes to the coastlines throughout History.
Bronze Age
Mahajanapadas
The Mahajanapadas were sixteen kingdoms or oligarchic republics that existed in ancient India from the sixth to fourth centuries BCE during the second urbanisation period.
Iron Age
The Iron Age brought significant social and cultural transformation with the arrival of Indo-Aryans, who settled in northern India. This period saw the composition of the Vedas, laying the foundation for Hinduism.
The establishment of Mahajanapadas (large kingdoms) in the Gangetic plains marked the rise of centralized polities.
In the south, early Dravidian cultures flourished, engaging in agriculture and trade.
Iron Age
Nepal Petty Kingdoms
Small polities in Nepal that were later unified into the Kingdom of Nepal by the Gorkhas.
Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods
Polities that existed in China during the Spring and Autumn Period (770-476 BCE) and the Warring States Period (453-221 BCE).
Mesopotamian Iron Age
Antiquity
Antiquity was marked by the emergence of powerful empires. The Maurya Empire unified much of the subcontinent and promoted Buddhism. Before that, the Magadha kingdom and others flourished.
Pakistan and western India saw first the domination of the Achaemenid Empire, then of the Macedonian Empire and its successors. By the first century AD the last of these polities, the Indo-Greek Kingdom, was succeeded by the Western Satraps.
In Sri Lanka, the Anuradhapura Kingdom developed, adopting Buddhism and becoming a center of learning and culture.
The Gupta Empire ushered in a "Golden Age," with advancements in science, mathematics, art, and literature. Trade with Rome, China, and Southeast Asia thrived. In the south, the Tamil Sangam period saw the rise of the Chera, Chola, and Pandya dynasties, who engaged in maritime trade.
Ancient history
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Achaemenid Period
Rise of Macedon
Wars of the Diadochi
Were a series of conflicts that were fought between the generals of Alexander the Great, known as the Diadochi, over who would rule his empire following his death.
Maurya Expansion
Greco-Bactrian Polities
Greek polities founded in Bactria and Northern India during the Hellenistic Period (323-31 BC).
Hellenistic Period
Eighteen Kingdoms
The eighteen fengjian states created in China by military leader Xiang Yu in 206 BCE. They would last until the Han unification in 202 BCE.
Early Empire of China
Tarim Basin
Polities that existed in the Tarim Basin before the 2nd century BCE.
Conquests of Chandragupta II
Conquests by Gupta ruler Chandragupta II.
Western Roman Empire
Early Middle Ages
This period witnessed the fragmentation of the Gupta Empire and the rise of regional powers like the Chalukyas, Pallavas, and Rashtrakutas in southern and central India. In northern India, the Pushyabhuti dynasty (Harsha) briefly united parts of the region.
Islamic influence began with Arab traders on the western coast and the establishment of the Umayyad rule in Sindh (712 AD). Buddhism waned, while Hinduism and Jainism persisted as dominant traditions. Sri Lanka’s Polonnaruwa period began, emphasizing Buddhist culture and temple-building.
Early Middle Ages
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Military campaigns of Yashodharman
Were a series of military campaigns by Yashodharman, ruler of the Second Aulikara dynasty, that resulted in the conquest (albeit short-lived) of most of the Indian Subcontinent.
Conquests of Songtsen Gampo
Were the conquests by Tibetan emperor Songtsen Gampo that resulted in Tibet reaching approximately its largest extent.
Early Muslim conquests
Were the military campaigns by the first three Islamic Caliphates (the Caliphate of Muhammad, the Rashidun Caliphate and the Umayyad Caliphate) that led to the Islamic conquest of most of the Middle East as well as the Iberian Peninsula.
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Tang Era
China-Tibet Wars
Were the many wars fought by the Chinese Tang Empire and the Tibetan Empire.
Wars of conquest of Muktapida
In the VIII century Muktapida, an Indian king of the Karkota dynasty of Kashmir, created a short-lived empire covering most of India.
Abbasid Revolution
Was the overthrow of the Umayyad Caliphate (661-750 CE), the second of the four major Caliphates in Islamic history, by the third, the Abbasid Caliphate (750-1517 CE).
Early Middle Ages
Iranian Intermezzo
A period in history which saw the rise of various native Iranian Muslim dynasties in the Iranian Plateau after the 7th-century Muslim conquest of Iran and the fall of Sasanian Empire.
Tibetan Era of Fragmentation
Polities that emerged from the collapse of the Tibetan Empire (618-842/848 AD).
Tibet - Era of Fragmentation
Was an era of disunity in Tibetan history lasting from the death of the Tibetan Empire's last emperor, Langdarma, in 842 until Drogön Chögyal Phagpa became the Imperial Preceptor of the three provinces of Tibet in 1253, under the Yuan dynasty.
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms - Five Dynasties (Chinese History)
Polities founded in China during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (907-979 AD).
Conquests of Mahmud
Expansion during the rule of Mahmud of the Ghaznavids.
High Middle Ages
The High Middle Ages saw the rise of powerful regional kingdoms and the advent of Islamic rule in northern India. The Ghaznavid and Ghurid invasions culminated in the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate (1206 AD), which introduced Islamic administration and cultural influences.
In the south, the Chola dynasty expanded its influence across the Indian Ocean, dominating trade and fostering cultural exchange with Southeast Asia. Sri Lanka faced invasions from South Indian kingdoms, but its Buddhist heritage remained resilient.
The northern part of the Indian Subcontinent was involved in the Mongol Conquests.
High Middle Ages
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Song Era
Conquests of Anawrahta
Expansion during the rule of Anawrahta in the Pagan Kingdom.
Varendra Rebellion
The kingdom of Varendra originated in a revolt in northern Bengal against the rule of the Pala Empire.
Chola invasions of Kalinga
Were a series of military expeditions by Kulothunga Chola I in the kingdom of Kalinga.
High Middle Ages
Mongol invasions and conquests
Were a series of military campaigny by the Mongols that created the largest contiguous Empire in history, the Mongol Empire, which controlled most of Eurasia.
Conquests of Simhana II
Expansion during the rule of Simhana II of the Seuna.
Shan States
Petty kingdoms created by the Shan people of northeastern Burma (1875-1948).
Successors of the Mongol Empire
Polities emerged after the fall of the Mongol Empire (1206-1368).
Mongol Civil Wars
Were a series of wars between the successor states of the Mongol Empire.
Late Middle Ages
The Delhi Sultanate reached its zenith under rulers like Alauddin Khilji and Muhammad bin Tughlaq. However, internal dissent and external invasions, such as those by Timur, weakened the Sultanate, leading to the rise of regional powers like the Bahmani Sultanate and the Vijayanagara Empire in the south.
The Bahmani Sultanate eventually fragmented into the so-called Deccan Sultanate.
The Vijayanagara Empire became a center of Hindu revivalism and economic prosperity, while coastal regions thrived on maritime trade. In Sri Lanka, the Kingdom of Kotte rose to prominence, facilitating trade with the Indian Ocean world.
The most important conflicts in this period were the Timurid Invasions, and the Wars between the Delhi Sultanate and Bengal Sultanate.
Late Middle Ages
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Late Middle Ages
Persia after the Disintegration of the Ilkhanate
Polities that emerged from the collapse of the Ilkhanate in Persia (1335 AD).
Bengal Sultanate-Delhi Sultanate War
Was a long-lasting conflict between the Bengal Sultanate and the Delhi Sultanate.
Timurid invasions
Military campaigns of Timur (or Tamerlane), a Turco-Mongol conqueror who founded the Timurid Empire in and around modern-day Afghanistan, Iran, and Central Asia.
Ming Era
Mon Kingdoms
Polities established by the Mon-speaking people in parts of present-day Myanmar and Thailand, that lasted until c. 1000 CE.
Forty Years' War
Was a military war fought between the Burmese-speaking Kingdom of Ava and the Mon-speaking Kingdom of Hanthawaddy.
European wars of religion
Were a series of wars in Europe (and the overseas possessions of European countries) the 16th, 17th and early 18th that started after the Protestant Reformation. Although the immediate causes of the wars were religious, the motives were complex and also included territorial ambitions.
Deccan Sultanates
Late-medieval Indian kingdoms - on the Deccan Plateau between the Krishna River and the Vindhya Range - that were ruled by Muslim dynasties: namely Ahmadnagar, Berar, Bidar, Bijapur, and Golconda. The sultanates had become independent during the break-up of the Bahmani Sultanate (1490).
Early modern period
The early modern period saw the rise of the Mughal Empire (1526-1857), one of the greatest empires in Indian history. Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan fostered economic prosperity, architectural brilliance (e.g., the Taj Mahal), and cultural synthesis.
The Mughal decline allowed regional powers like the Marathas, Sikhs, and Nawabs to assert control. European powers, particularly the Portuguese, Dutch, French, and British, began establishing trading posts and colonies.
In Sri Lanka, Portuguese and later Dutch colonial rule began, impacting the island's economy and culture. The Maldives also came under Portuguese influence before restoring independence.
This period saw the start of the Anglo-Indian Wars that eventually resulted in the undisputed British dominion over the Indian Subcontinent.
By the end of the Early Modern Period the many petty kingdoms of Nepal were unified
Early modern period
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Bengal Sultanate-Kingdom of Mrauk U War of 1512-1516
Was a conflict in the 16th century between the Bengal Sultanate and the Kingdom of Mrauk U.
Ottoman-Persian Wars
Were a series of wars between Ottoman Empire and the Safavid, Afsharid, Zand, and Qajar dynasties of Iran (Persia) through the 16th-20th centuries.
Sinhalese-Portuguese War
Were a series of wars between the native kingdoms of modern-day Sri Lanka and the Portuguese Empire.
Conquests of Akbar the Great
Expansion during the rule of Akbar the Great in the Mughal Empire.
Dutch-Portuguese War
Was a global conflict between the Portuguese Empire and the Dutch Empire. The conflict primarily saw the Dutch companies invading Portuguese colonies in the Americas, Africa, and the East Indies.
Ahom-Mughal conflicts
A series of conflicts between the Mughal Empire and the Ahom Kingdom in Assam.
Portuguese Restoration War
Was a revolution organized by the Portuguese nobility and bourgeoisie sixty years after the crowning of Philip I (Philip II of Spain), the first "dual monarch", that ended the Iberian Union.
Conquests of Aurangzeb
Expansion during the rule of Aurangzeb in the Mughal Empire.
Anglo-Dutch Wars
Were a series of conflicts mainly fought between the Dutch Republic and England (later Great Britain) from mid-17th to late 18th century.
Qing Era
Maratha-Mughal War
Were a series of wars fought between the Mughal Empire and the Maratha Empire.
Stuart Era
Anglo-Indian Wars
Were a series of wars fought by the British East India Company in the Indian Subcontinent that resulted in the British conquest and colonial rule of the region.
Ten Great Campaigns
Were a series of military campaigns launched by the Qing dynasty of China in the mid-late 18th century during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor.
Conquests of Shahu I
Expansion during the rule of Shahu I in the Maratha Empire.
Conquests of Nader Shah
Expansion during the rule of Nader Shah of the Afsharid Dynasty.
War of the Austrian Succession
Was a European conflict caused by the succession to the Habsburg Domains. Maria Theresa succeeded her father Charles VI, and the opposition to female inheritance of the throne was a pretext for starting a war. It was a global conflict that saw fight in Europe, Asia, America and Africa.
Indian Princely States
Were states part of the British Raj that were governed by an Indian ruler rather than directly by the British.
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Conquests of Prithvi Narayan Shah
Expansion during the rule of Prithvi Narayan Shah in the Gorkha Kingdom.
Civil War between Afsharid and Qajar
Was a civil war in Persia that led to the end of the Afsharid Dynasty, whose place was taken by the Qajar Dynasty.
Conquests of Ahmad Shah Durrani
Expansion during the rule of Ahmad Shah Durrani in the Durrani Empire.
Seven Years' War
Was a global conflict that involved most of the European great powers, and was fought primarily in Europe, the Americas, and Asia-Pacific. At the end of the war the main winner was Great Britain, that obtained territories in North America, the Caribbean and India, becoming the most powerful maritime and colonial of the European powers.
Conquests of Rana Bahadur Shah
Expansion during the rule of Rana Bahadur Shah in the Kingdom of Nepal.
American Revolutionary War
Was the war of independence of the United States of America (at the time the Thirteen Colonies) against Great Britain.
Conquests of Shahu II
Expansion during the rule of Shahu II in the Maratha Empire.
Conquests of Ranjit Singh
Expansion during the rule of Ranjit Singh in the Sikh Empire.
Early modern period
Conquests of Bodawpaya
Expansion during the rule of Bodawpaya of the Konbaung Dynasty.
French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Period (1789-1815)
The British East India Company consolidated its control over large parts of the subcontinent during this period, defeating rivals like the Marathas and Mysore.
In Sri Lanka, the British replaced the Dutch as colonial rulers, expanding their influence over the entire island.
French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars
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Cotiote War
Were a series of struggles between the Kingdom of Cotiote and the British East India Company. Following the war, Cotiote was annexed to the Madras Presidency.
French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars
Were a series of conflicts between France and several European monarchies between 1792 and 1815. They encompass first the French Revolutionary Wars against the newly declared French Republic and from 1803 onwards the Napoleonic Wars against First Consul and later Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte. They include the Coalition Wars as a subset: seven wars waged by various military alliances of great European powers, known as Coalitions, against Revolutionary France - later the First French Empire - and its allies.
Kandyan Wars
Were a series of wars betweent the British Empire and the native Sinhalese Kingdom of Kandy on the island of Sri Lanka. The Kingdom of Kandy was eventually inglobated into British Ceylon.
19th Century
The 19th century marked the peak of British colonial rule. The Indian Rebellion of 1857, triggered by widespread discontent, led to the end of the East India Company's rule and the establishment of the British Raj (1858). Industrialization and infrastructure development (e.g., railways) transformed the economy, while exploitation and famines caused suffering.
Social reform movements emerged, challenging caste discrimination and colonial rule. In Sri Lanka, British plantations and missionary efforts reshaped the island’s economy and religious landscape.
The Maldives remained a protectorate under indirect British influence.
XIX Century
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Century of humiliation
A period (1839-1949) of foregin interventions in China resulting in the occupation, conquest or lease of large territories by foregin countries.
XIX Century
From 1900 to the End of World War II
The Indian independence movement, led by figures like Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, gained momentum. The subcontinent became a focal point for anti-colonial struggles, culminating in the Quit India Movement (1942).
World War II strained British control, and nationalist movements intensified across the region. In Sri Lanka, the independence movement gained traction.
World War I
Was a global conflict between two coalitions, the Allies (primarily France, the United Kingdom, Russia, Italy, Japan, and the United States) and the Central Powers (led by Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire). It was mainly caused by the competition of the western countries over domain in Europe and in the rest of the world with their colonial empires. The war ended with the defeat of the Central Powers. The war also caused the Russian Revolution and the ensuing Russian Civil War.
1900-1945
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Chinese Warlord Era
Was a period in the history of the Republic of China when control of the country was divided among former military cliques of the Beiyang Army and other regional factions.
1900-1945
Chinese Civil War
Was a civil war fought in China between the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party. The war continued intermittently for more than twenty years, and overlappes with the Second Sino-Japanese War that started in 1937 with the Japanese occupation of Manchuria. The Communists gained control of mainland China and established the People's Republic of China in 1949, forcing the leadership of the Kuomintang-led Republic of China to retreat to the island of Taiwan.
World War II
Was a global conflict that lasted from 1939 to 1945 (it started sooner in certain regions) between the Axis Powers (mainly Germany, Japan and Italy) and the Allies (mainly the Soviet Union, the U.S.A., the U.K., China and France). It was the war with more fatalities in history. The war in Asia began when Japan invaded China on July 7, 1937. The war in Europe began when Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. The war ended with the complete defeat of the Axis powers, which were occupied by the Allies.
Vichy France Colonies
World War II
Cold War Period
India and Pakistan gained independence in 1947, following the Partition that caused widespread violence and displacement. India became a secular republic, while Pakistan was established as an Islamic state.
Bangladesh emerged as an independent nation in 1971 after the Bangladesh Liberation War.
Nepal remained a monarchy, transitioning to democracy by the 1990s. Sri Lanka gained independence in 1948. The Maldives gained independence in 1965, maintaining close ties with Britain.
Cold War
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Cold War
Partition of India
Was the partition of British India in two independent entities: India (with a Hindu majority) and Pakistan (with a Muslim majority). This included the several princely states that were dependent on the British Colony.
Indo-Pakistani conflicts
Is an ongoing conflict between India and Pakistan, two countries that emerged fromt he partition of British India in 1947.
Afghan Civil War
Was a civil war in Afghanistan between the end of the 1970's and 2022 that included a series of related conflicts. The first phase of the civil war were two coups d'état that resulted in the establishment of the Socialist Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. In order to support the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, the USSR invaded the country. Two years after the Soviet withdrawal, in 1992, the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan was ended by the Mujahideen, an Islamic rebel group. This was followed by a conflict mainly between the Mujahideen and the Taliban forces (another Islamic militia). Until 1996 Taliban took control of Kabul and most of Afghanistan, and established of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. The civil war continued between the Islamic State of Afghanistan and the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, two governments recognized by different international actors. This phase was ended by the US-led invasion of Afghanistan in 2001. The invasion's goals were to capture or kill Osama bin Laden and al-Qaeda militants, as well as replace the Taliban with a U.S.-friendly government. With support of the US the Talibans were initially defeated and the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan was established. However, the Talibans started a counteroffensive and in 2021 recaptured whole Afghanistan and established again the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan.
Post-Cold War Period (1990-2010)
India emerged as a global economic power, with liberalization fostering rapid growth. Pakistan faced political instability and conflicts, including the rise of extremism. Nepal transitioned from a monarchy to a federal democratic republic in 2008.
Post–Cold War era
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Post–Cold War era
2010s and 2020s
India strengthened its global position but dealt with domestic issues like economic inequality and social tensions. Pakistan continued grappling with political instability and economic crises.
Bangladesh became a model for economic development in South Asia, while Sri Lanka faced economic collapse in 2022. Nepal consolidated its democratic framework, and the Maldives emerged as a leader in climate advocacy, emphasizing the existential threats posed by rising sea levels.
