South-eastern Asia
Modern-day Countries in this region
Bronze Age
Southeastern Asia during the Bronze Age saw the emergence of early human settlements along river valleys and coastal areas. Archaeological sites like Ban Chiang in Thailand show evidence of advanced metallurgy and agriculture. Communities cultivated rice, domesticated animals, and produced pottery and tools.
Trade networks connected the region with South Asia and China, facilitating the spread of cultural practices and technologies.
Coastline Changes
Important changes to the coastlines throughout History.
Iron Age
Iron tools revolutionized agriculture, enabling more intensive rice cultivation. Societies grew more complex, with the rise of chiefdoms and early states.
Early influences from India and China began to shape the region, particularly in terms of religious practices and material culture.
Iron Age
Antiquity
In antiquity, early civilizations like Funan (in present-day Cambodia and Vietnam) emerged as key centers of trade and culture. These states were heavily influenced by Indian ideas, adopting Hinduism and Buddhism, as well as Indian political models.
The region became a critical link in the maritime Silk Road, facilitating the exchange of goods such as spices, silk, and gold. Inland states also grew, supported by agriculture and early urbanization. Local cultures began merging Indian influences with indigenous traditions.
Ancient history
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Mon Kingdoms
Polities established by the Mon-speaking people in parts of present-day Myanmar and Thailand, that lasted until c. 1000 CE.
Eighteen Kingdoms
The eighteen fengjian states created in China by military leader Xiang Yu in 206 BCE. They would last until the Han unification in 202 BCE.
Pyu City-States
Group of city-states that existed from about the 2nd century BCE to the mid-11th century in present-day Upper Burma (Myanmar). The city-states were founded as part of the southward migration by the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu people, the earliest inhabitants of Burma of whom records are extant.
Early Empire of China
Three Kingdoms (Chinese History)
Tripartite division of China among the dynastic states of Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu from 220 to 280 AD.
Three Kingdoms Period
Sixteen Kingdoms (Chinese History)
Polities created in northern China between 304 and 439 AD.
Chaos of the Eight Princes
Was a series of civil wars among kings/princes (Chinese: wáng 王) of the Chinese Jin dynasty from 291 to 306 AD.
Northern and Southern dynasties (Chinese History)
Polities tha existed in China between 420 and 589 AD.
Conquest of northern China by Northern Wei
Were a series of military campaigns by Northern Wei, a Chinese polity during the Northern and Southern dynasties Era, that led to the conquest of northern China.
Early Middle Ages
This period saw the rise of influential kingdoms such as Srivijaya in Sumatra, which dominated maritime trade routes in the Malay Archipelago. Srivijaya became a center for Buddhist learning and international trade.
In mainland Southeast Asia, the Mon and Khmer peoples established kingdoms, with the Dvaravati culture flourishing in modern Thailand.
Vietnam saw the development of its own identity under Chinese influence, eventually asserting autonomy from Chinese control in the 10th century.
Early Middle Ages
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Tang Era
China-Tibet Wars
Were the many wars fought by the Chinese Tang Empire and the Tibetan Empire.
China-Nanzhao Wars
Were a series of wars between Tang China and Nanzhao, a Kingdom centred in present-day Yunnan.
Tibetan Era of Fragmentation
Polities that emerged from the collapse of the Tibetan Empire (618-842/848 AD).
Tibet - Era of Fragmentation
Was an era of disunity in Tibetan history lasting from the death of the Tibetan Empire's last emperor, Langdarma, in 842 until Drogön Chögyal Phagpa became the Imperial Preceptor of the three provinces of Tibet in 1253, under the Yuan dynasty.
Barangay States
Precolonial petty kingdoms foundedin the Philippines before Spanish colonization (14th to 16th century AD).
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms - Ten Kingdoms (Chinese History)
Polities founded in China during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (907-979 AD).
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms - Other Countries (Chinese History)
Polities founded in China during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (907-979 AD).
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms
High Middle Ages
The High Middle Ages witnessed the emergence of the Khmer Empire, centered at Angkor, which became a powerful state in mainland Southeast Asia. The Khmer built monumental temple complexes like Angkor Wat, showcasing their architectural and religious achievements.
Islam began to arrive in the archipelago through Arab and Indian traders.
In Vietnam, the Đại Việt state consolidated its position, beginning a process of southward expansion.
High Middle Ages
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Conquests of Anawrahta
Expansion during the rule of Anawrahta in the Pagan Kingdom.
Mongol invasions and conquests
Were a series of military campaigny by the Mongols that created the largest contiguous Empire in history, the Mongol Empire, which controlled most of Eurasia.
Successors of the Mongol Empire
Polities emerged after the fall of the Mongol Empire (1206-1368).
Mongol Civil Wars
Were a series of wars between the successor states of the Mongol Empire.
Yuan Era
Late Middle Ages
By the late Middle Ages, new powers such as the Majapahit Empire in Java emerged, creating an influential maritime kingdom that dominated trade and politics in the archipelago.
The Khmer Empire declined during this period, while the Ayutthaya Kingdom rose to power in modern Thailand, becoming a major player in mainland Southeast Asia.
Islam spread widely in the Malay Archipelago, establishing sultanates such as Malacca, which became a major trade hub and center for Islamic culture.
In Vietnam, the Trần dynasty continued to expand southward and defended against Mongol invasions.
Late Middle Ages
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Conquests of Hayam Wuruk
Expansion during the rule of Hayam Wuruk in the Majapahit Empire.
Ming Era
Forty Years' War
Was a military war fought between the Burmese-speaking Kingdom of Ava and the Mon-speaking Kingdom of Hanthawaddy.
Late Middle Ages
Lam Sơn uprising
Uprising led by Lê Lợi in Vietnam of 1418-1427 against Ming rule.
Ayutthaya-Lan Na War (1441-1474)
Was a border conflict between the Ayutthaya Kingdom (present-day Thailand) and the Lan Na Kingdom (in northern Thailand).
Early modern period
The early modern period saw the arrival of European powers, including the Portuguese, Dutch, Spanish, and British, who sought control over trade routes and resources. The Portuguese established trading posts in Malacca and the Moluccas, while the Spanish colonized the Philippines.
Local powers like Ayutthaya, Aceh, and the Sultanate of Johor maintained influence, often allying with or resisting European forces. The Majapahit Empire declined, giving way to regional sultanates in the Indonesian archipelago.
Islam became the dominant religion in much of the archipelago, while Theravāda Buddhism spread throughout mainland Southeast Asia.
Bengal Sultanate-Kingdom of Mrauk U War of 1512-1516
Was a conflict in the 16th century between the Bengal Sultanate and the Kingdom of Mrauk U.
Early modern period
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Burmese-Siamese Wars
Were a series of wars fought between Burma and Siam from the 16th to 19th centuries.
Philippine revolts against Spain
Were a series of revolts against Spanish colonial rule in the Philippines.
Early modern period
Dutch-Portuguese War
Was a global conflict between the Portuguese Empire and the Dutch Empire. The conflict primarily saw the Dutch companies invading Portuguese colonies in the Americas, Africa, and the East Indies.
Conquests of Iskandar Muda
Expansion during the rule of Iskandar Muda in the Aceh Sultanate.
Dutch conquest of the Banda Islands
Was a process of military conquest from 1609 to 1621 by the Dutch East India Company of the Banda Islands.
Qing conquest of the Ming
Was a a conflict that saw the transition from the Ming to the Qing Dinasty in China. The Qing created an indpendent domain in Manchuria, revolted against the Ming and systematically conquered all Ming territories in the following decades.
Trịnh-Nguyễn War
Was a 17th-century lengthy civil war waged between the two ruling families in Vietnam, the Trịnh lords of Đàng Ngoài and the Nguyễn lords of Đàng Trong.
Portuguese Restoration War
Was a revolution organized by the Portuguese nobility and bourgeoisie sixty years after the crowning of Philip I (Philip II of Spain), the first "dual monarch", that ended the Iberian Union.
Brunei Civil War
Was a civil war fought in the Bruneian Empire from 1660 to 1673.
Conquests of Aurangzeb
Expansion during the rule of Aurangzeb in the Mughal Empire.
Anglo-Dutch Wars
Were a series of conflicts mainly fought between the Dutch Republic and England (later Great Britain) from mid-17th to late 18th century.
Qing Era
Fragmentation of Bali
Petty kingdoms that emerged on the island of Bali after the fragmentation of the Gelgel Kingdom (1651 AD).
Stuart Era
Anglo-Indian Wars
Were a series of wars fought by the British East India Company in the Indian Subcontinent that resulted in the British conquest and colonial rule of the region.
Ten Great Campaigns
Were a series of military campaigns launched by the Qing dynasty of China in the mid-late 18th century during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor.
Javanese Wars of Succession
Were three military confrontations between the Dutch East India Company and the Mataram Sultanate on central Java between 1703 and 1755. The hereditary succession in Maratam was at stake, prompting the VOC to field its own candidates in an attempt to gain more influence in central and eastern Java.
Conquests of Shahu I
Expansion during the rule of Shahu I in the Maratha Empire.
Conquests of Ahmad Shah Durrani
Expansion during the rule of Ahmad Shah Durrani in the Durrani Empire.
Seven Years' War
Was a global conflict that involved most of the European great powers, and was fought primarily in Europe, the Americas, and Asia-Pacific. At the end of the war the main winner was Great Britain, that obtained territories in North America, the Caribbean and India, becoming the most powerful maritime and colonial of the European powers.
Conquests of Rana Bahadur Shah
Expansion during the rule of Rana Bahadur Shah in the Kingdom of Nepal.
American Revolutionary War
Was the war of independence of the United States of America (at the time the Thirteen Colonies) against Great Britain.
Conquests of Shahu II
Expansion during the rule of Shahu II in the Maratha Empire.
Kongsi Republic
Republics created by Chinese people in Borneo from the late 18th century.
Siamese-Vietnamese War
Were a series of armed conflicts between the Siamese Ayutthaya Kingdom and Rattanakosin Kingdom and the various dynasties of Vietnam mainly during the 18th and 19th centuries.
Conquests of Bodawpaya
Expansion during the rule of Bodawpaya of the Konbaung Dynasty.
French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Period (1789-1815)
The Napoleonic period had limited direct impact on Southeastern Asia, but colonial rivalries intensified. The British East India Company expanded its influence in Burma and Malaya, while the Dutch consolidated control over Java and other parts of Indonesia.
The Spanish maintained their hold on the Philippines, integrating the colony more deeply into their global empire.
Regional polities such as Siam (Thailand) began modernizing to counter European pressures, laying the groundwork for future state-building efforts.
French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars
Were a series of conflicts between France and several European monarchies between 1792 and 1815. They encompass first the French Revolutionary Wars against the newly declared French Republic and from 1803 onwards the Napoleonic Wars against First Consul and later Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte. They include the Coalition Wars as a subset: seven wars waged by various military alliances of great European powers, known as Coalitions, against Revolutionary France - later the First French Empire - and its allies.
French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars
19th Century
The 19th century saw the colonization of most of Southeastern Asia by European powers. The British expanded into Burma and Malaya, while the French colonized Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos (forming French Indochina). The Dutch solidified their control over Indonesia.
Siam remained independent.
At the end of the century Spain lost control of the Philippines to the United States.
XIX Century
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Indian Princely States
Were states part of the British Raj that were governed by an Indian ruler rather than directly by the British.
Dutch-Bone Wars
Were a series of conflicts between the Netherlands and the Bone state in southern Sulawesi.
Century of humiliation
A period (1839-1949) of foregin interventions in China resulting in the occupation, conquest or lease of large territories by foregin countries.
Dutch Conquest of Bali
Were a series of military expeditions by the Dutch East Indies to conquer the island of Bali (Indonesia).
Kongsi Wars
Were a series of wars between the Dutch East Indies and the Kongsi Republics, which were self-governing Chinese mining communities in western Borneo.
Concessions in China
Concessions of China (and similar polities) by West European countries, the U.S., Japan and Russia.
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Aceh War
Was a war between the Sultanate of Aceh and the Dutch Empire.
Unfederated Malay States
Five states under British protection established in the Malay peninsula in the first half of the 20th century.
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Philippine-American War
Was a war between the First Philippine Republic and the United States of America. It resulted in the occupation of the Philippines by the United States. The Philippines had managed to become independent with the Philippine Revolution against Spanish rule (1896-1898). However, Spain officially ceded the Philippines to the United States after the Spanish-American War. The United States did not aknowledge Philippine independence and thus invaded the archipelago.
From 1900 to the End of World War II
The early 20th century saw growing nationalist movements across the region. Anti-colonial sentiments intensified in countries like Vietnam and Burma.
During World War II, Japan occupied much of Southeastern Asia, presenting itself as a liberator from European colonialism. However, Japanese rule often proved exploitative and oppressive. The war weakened European control, setting the stage for post-war independence movements.
XIX Century
1900-1945
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Chinese Warlord Era
Was a period in the history of the Republic of China when control of the country was divided among former military cliques of the Beiyang Army and other regional factions.
1900-1945
Chinese Civil War
Was a civil war fought in China between the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party. The war continued intermittently for more than twenty years, and overlappes with the Second Sino-Japanese War that started in 1937 with the Japanese occupation of Manchuria. The Communists gained control of mainland China and established the People's Republic of China in 1949, forcing the leadership of the Kuomintang-led Republic of China to retreat to the island of Taiwan.
World War II
Was a global conflict that lasted from 1939 to 1945 (it started sooner in certain regions) between the Axis Powers (mainly Germany, Japan and Italy) and the Allies (mainly the Soviet Union, the U.S.A., the U.K., China and France). It was the war with more fatalities in history. The war in Asia began when Japan invaded China on July 7, 1937. The war in Europe began when Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. The war ended with the complete defeat of the Axis powers, which were occupied by the Allies.
World War II
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Cold War Period
The Cold War era saw decolonization and independence struggles. Vietnam fought a prolonged war for independence from France (First Indochina War) and later became embroiled in the Vietnam War, dividing the nation into communist North and capitalist South. In 1975 North Vietnam reuinted the country by conquering its southern counterpart.
Indonesia gained independence from Dutch rule, while Burma, Malaysia, and the Philippines also became independent. Cambodia and Laos struggled with civil wars influenced by Cold War dynamics.
ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) was formed in 1967 to promote regional cooperation and resist Cold War polarization.
Indochina Wars
Were a series of wars which were waged in Southeast Asia from 1946 to 1991, by communist Indochinese forces (mainly the Democratic Republic of Vietnam) against anti-communist forces (mainly French, the State of Vietnam, American, Cambodian, Laotian Royal, and Chinese forces). The term "Indochina" originally referred to French Indochina.
Cold War
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Cold War
Cambodian-Vietnamese War
Was an armed conflict between Democratic Kampuchea, controlled by the Khmer Rouge, and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.
Post–Cold War era
Post-Cold War Period (1990-2010)
The post-Cold War period saw rapid economic growth and globalization in Southeastern Asia. Countries like Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam became key players in the global economy, while Indonesia transitioned to democracy after the fall of Suharto in 1998.
Ethnic and political tensions persisted in some areas, such as the Mindanao conflict in the Philippines and insurgencies in Myanmar. Cambodia and Laos began opening their economies.
Post–Cold War era
2010s and 2020s
In the 2010s and 2020s, Southeastern Asia continued to grapple with challenges like climate change, political instability, and economic inequality. Myanmar experienced a military coup in 2021, reversing democratic gains.
Myanmar Civil War
In response to the 2021 coup d'état by the Armed Forces of Myanmar, several ethnical and political factions of Myanmar started a rebellion against the Myanmar Government. The National Unity Government and its military wing, the People's Defence Force, ist the most important political faction fighting against the Military Junta. The Myanmar Civil War, however, involves many ethnical factions whose aim is either more autonomy from the central government or independence.
