Northern America

The First Peoples and Early Settlements

Human habitation in Northern America began as early as 15,000 years ago, with people migrating from Asia via the Bering Land Bridge or coastal routes. These early inhabitants were hunter-gatherers. During the Archaic period (8,000-2,000 BC), populations diversified and settled in a range of environments, including the Arctic, Great Plains, and temperate woodlands.

The Archaic period saw significant cultural diversification as Indigenous peoples adapted to local ecosystems. In the Eastern Woodlands, people began cultivating plants such as sunflowers, squash, and goosefoot around 4,000 BC, forming the basis of early agriculture. In the Southwest, the introduction of maize agriculture from Mesoamerica around 2,000 BC revolutionized subsistence patterns, leading to more sedentary lifestyles.

Groups such as the Poverty Point culture in the Mississippi Delta constructed large earthworks around 1,800 BC, indicating social organization and trade networks. Meanwhile, Arctic peoples, ancestors of the Inuit, developed specialized hunting techniques for marine animals, including seals and whales.

Woodland Period and Mound-Building Cultures

By 1,000 BC, the Woodland period began in the Eastern Woodlands, marked by increased reliance on agriculture, permanent settlements, and ceremonial practices. The Adena culture (1000-200 BC) was one of the first mound-building societies, constructing elaborate burial mounds and earthworks in the Ohio Valley.

The Hopewell tradition (200 BC-500 AD) expanded these practices, creating extensive trade networks that linked Northern America with regions as far as the Gulf Coast and the Rocky Mountains. Hopewell societies are known for their intricate art, including carved pipes and jewelry, as well as large ceremonial earthworks.

Mississippian and Other Complex Societies

The Mississippian culture (800-1600 AD) represented the height of pre-Columbian complexity in Northern America, particularly in the southeastern United States. At its peak, Mississippian society built cities like Cahokia, near modern-day St. Louis, which housed tens of thousands of people and featured monumental earthen mounds, including Monks Mound, the largest pre-Columbian structure in North America. Mississippian societies were characterized by hierarchical political structures, extensive trade networks, and sophisticated agriculture based on maize, beans, and squash.

In the Southwest, the Ancestral Puebloans (formerly known as the Anasazi) constructed elaborate cliff dwellings and great houses, such as those found in Chaco Canyon and Mesa Verde. These settlements were centers of trade and culture, connected by an extensive road system. However, environmental pressures, including droughts, likely contributed to the decline of these societies by the 14th century.

Arctic and Subarctic Peoples

In the Arctic and Subarctic regions, the Paleo-Inuit cultures thrived as early as 2000 BC, adapting to harsh climates through advanced hunting and tool-making techniques. The Thule culture, ancestors of the modern Inuit, emerged around 1000 AD, excelling in marine hunting and constructing sophisticated snowhouses and kayaks. Norse settlers arrived in Greenland and also visited Canada. Greenland's Norse settlements disappeared by the 15th century, possibly due to climate change and reduced contact with Europe.

Northwestern and Plains Cultures

The Pacific Northwest was home to societies that thrived on the region's abundant natural resources. Cultures such as the Coast Salish and Haida developed complex social hierarchies and ceremonial traditions, including potlatches, which involved the redistribution of wealth. Their craftsmanship, particularly totem poles, reflected their rich oral traditions and cosmologies.

On the Great Plains, nomadic and semi-nomadic groups like the Plains Cree and Blackfoot hunted bison and used techniques such as communal bison jumps. These societies were highly mobile and relied on a combination of hunting, gathering, and trade.

Early modern period

The Early Modern Period in Northern America was defined by European colonization, the displacement of Indigenous peoples, the establishment of colonial economies, and the geopolitical rivalries. European exploration intensified following John Cabot’s voyage to Newfoundland in 1497. The Spanish focused on the southern parts of North America and the Caribbean, but their influence extended into the present-day U.S. Southwest. The French, through explorers like Jacques Cartier and Samuel de Champlain, established settlements in modern-day Canada, including Quebec, while also venturing into the Mississippi River Basin. The English founded their first permanent colony at Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607, and later the Pilgrims established Plymouth Colony in 1620, marking the beginning of extensive British colonization.

As European settlements expanded, Indigenous populations faced catastrophic disruptions. Epidemics of smallpox, measles, and other diseases decimated communities, while military conflicts and land dispossession further undermined Indigenous sovereignty. Key conflicts, such as King Philip’s War (1675-1678) in New England, illustrated the fierce resistance of Indigenous peoples, though such efforts were ultimately unable to halt European expansion.

The fur trade, particularly in French Canada, became a cornerstone of the colonial economy, with Indigenous peoples acting as vital intermediaries. In the British colonies, economies diversified: New England thrived on shipping and trade; the Middle Colonies excelled in agriculture and industry; and the Southern Colonies developed plantation systems reliant on enslaved African labor. The triangular trade linked Northern America to Africa and Europe, fostering an economy based on slavery, sugar, and other commodities. The system left a profound legacy of racial inequality.

Spanish and French interests clashed in the Gulf Coast and Mississippi River Valley. The establishment of New Orleans (1718) by the French symbolized their claim to the interior, but Spain maintained influence in Florida and the Southwest.

The War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714), known in Northern America as Queen Anne’s War, pitted the British against the French and their Indigenous allies. It resulted in Britain gaining Acadia (modern Nova Scotia) through the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713.

The Seven Years’ War (1756-1763), known as the French and Indian War in Northern America, saw Britain emerge victorious over France. The 1763 Treaty of Paris transferred Canada and much of Louisiana to British control, effectively ending French colonial ambitions in Northern America and cementing Britain’s dominance.

The latter part of this period saw the thirteen British colonies in the United States grow increasingly discontented with British rule, primarily due to taxation without representation and other perceived injustices. The American Revolution erupted in 1775, culminating in the Declaration of Independence in 1776. After years of conflict, aided by French support, the United States achieved victory at the Battle of Yorktown in 1781. The 1783 Treaty of Paris recognized the independence of the United States, profoundly altering the political landscape of Northern America.

While the American colonies pursued independence, Canada remained loyal to Britain, absorbing many Loyalist refugees after the revolution. The French-speaking population in Quebec adapted to British rule following the 1763 transfer of power, maintaining their distinct cultural and legal traditions under the Quebec Act of 1774.

French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Period (1789-1815)

During the Napoleonic era, conflicts such as the War of 1812 between the United States and Britain disrupted trade and reshaped territorial boundaries. In Canada, loyalist migrations shaped demographics, while Greenland and Bermuda remained under European colonial control.

19th Century

The United States expanded westward through the Louisiana Purchase and Manifest Destiny. The American Civil War (1861-1865) was a defining conflict in U.S. history, fought between the Union (Northern states) and the Confederacy (Southern states) over deep-seated divisions regarding slavery, states’ rights, and the preservation of the federal union. Triggered by the secession of eleven Southern states following the election of President Abraham Lincoln, the war unfolded as one of the deadliest in American history. Key turning points included the Union victory at Gettysburg in 1863 and the capture of Vicksburg, which gave the North control over the Mississippi River. After four years of intense combat, the Confederacy surrendered in 1865, leading to the abolition of slavery through the 13th Amendment and the beginning of Reconstruction.

Canada transitioned from a British colony to a self-governing dominion in 1867.

Greenland and Bermuda remained under colonial rule, while Saint Pierre and Miquelon served as a French fishing outpost.

From 1900 to the End of World War II

Northern America played a pivotal role in global conflicts. The United States emerged as a global power after World War I and was instrumental in the Allied victory in World War II. Canada also contributed significantly to both wars. Greenland’s strategic importance grew during World War II as a base for U.S. military operations. Indigenous peoples across the region continued to face systemic discrimination and cultural assimilation policies.

Cold War Period

The Cold War cemented the United States as a superpower, with Canada closely aligned through NATO and economic ties. Greenland hosted key U.S. military installations, including Thule Air Base. Social movements in the 1960s and 1970s, including civil rights in the U.S. and Indigenous rights in Canada, reshaped societal norms. Bermuda and Saint Pierre and Miquelon saw incremental autonomy but remained linked to colonial powers.

Post-Cold War Period (1990-2010)

Northern America experienced economic growth and globalization, with the U.S. emerging as the dominant global power after the Cold War. The 9/11 attacks in 2001 shifted U.S. foreign policy toward combating terrorism.

2010s and 2020s

The 2010s and 2020s were marked by political polarization in the U.S., rising tensions with Russia and China, and the COVID-19 pandemic. Canada continued to emphasize multiculturalism and climate change leadership, while Greenland pursued greater autonomy from Denmark. Bermuda and Saint Pierre and Miquelon remained culturally distinct but economically reliant on tourism and fishing.