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Were the military campaigns by the first three Islamic Caliphates (the Caliphate of Muhammad, the Rashidun Caliphate and the Umayyad Caliphate) that led to the Islamic conquest of most of the Middle East as well as the Iberian Peninsula.
Chronology
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Was the establishment of the first Islamic Caliphate under the Prophet Mohammed.
January 623: In 622, Muhammad, expelled from Mecca, took refuge in Medina.
January 631: Mecca conquered by Mohammed's Caliphate.
January 631: In 630 CE, Mohammed sent his cousin Ali to Sana'a, Yemen, which was the most advanced region in Arabia. The Banu Hamdan confederation, one of the prominent tribes in the area, was among the first to accept Islam under Ali's leadership.
January 631: In 630 AD the island of Bahrain was conquered by the Arabs.
June 632: The Rashidun Caliphate was ruled by the first four successive Caliphs (successors) of Muhammad after his death in 632.
January 633: When Mohammed died in 632, the entire Arabian Peninsula was under the control of his Caliphate.
January 625: Battle of Bedr.
Was a military campaign by the Rashidun Caliphate that resulted in the Muslim conquest of Persia and the fall of the Sasanian Empire.
January 644: Suhail was a military commander of the Rashidun Caliphate. Kerman was a province in Persia. Persepolis was an ancient city in Persia. The Rashidun Caliphate was a Muslim empire that expanded rapidly in the 7th century.
January 640: Muslim invasion of Fars in 638/9 led by the Rashidun Caliphate.
February 640: Rashidun forces leave Fars.
January 643: From Nahavand, Nu'man ibn Muqaarin marched to Hamadan, and then proceeded 370 kilometres southeast to the city of Isfahan, defeating a Sasanian army there. Nu'man, reinforced by fresh troops from Busra and Kufa under the command of Abu Musa Ashaari and Ahnaf ibn Qais, then besieged the city. The siege continued for a few months before the city surrendered.
January 644: In ca. 643, Uthman ibn Abi al-As, a military commander under the Rashidun Caliphate, seized control of Bishapur, an ancient city in present-day Iran.
February 645: In 645, the Persian governor (marzban) of Fars, Shahrag, successfully repulsed an attack by al-'Ala' from Bahrain.
January 649: In 648, 'Abd-Allah ibn al-'Ash'ari, a military commander of the Rashidun Caliphate, successfully captured the city of Estakhr in Fars after forcing the governor, Mahak, to surrender. This event marked a significant victory for the Rashidun Caliphate in expanding their territory in the region.
January 651: The first real invasion took place in 650, when Abd-Allah ibn Amir, having secured his position in Kerman, sent an army under Mujashi ibn Mas'ud there. After crossing the Dasht-i Lut desert, Mujashi ibn Mas'ud reached Sakastan, but suffered a heavy defeat and was forced to retreat.
February 651: The first real invasion took place in 650, when Abd-Allah ibn Amir, having secured his position in Kerman, sent an army under Mujashi ibn Mas'ud there. After crossing the Dasht-i Lut desert, Mujashi ibn Mas'ud reached Sakastan, but suffered a heavy defeat and was forced to retreat.
January 652: In 651, Nu'aym ibn Muqaarin, Nu'man's brother, marched northeast to Rey, Iran, about 320 kilometres from Hamadan, and laid siege to the city, which surrendered after fierce resistance.
January 652: In 651, the Arab general Nu'aym led an expedition from Rey to Tabaristan, where the local ruler signed a peace treaty with the Rashidun Caliphate. Tabaristan was a region south of the Caspian Sea.
January 652: Next, he besieged the provincial capital, Zrang, and, after a heavy battle outside the city, its governor, Aparviz, surrendered.
January 652: Nu'aym was a military commander under the Rashidun Caliphate. Qom was a city in Persia known for its strategic location. The capture of Qom was part of the expansion of the Rashidun Caliphate's territory in the region.
January 652: Abdullah ibn Aamir, a general of the Rashidun Caliphate, besieged the provincial capital, Zrang, and, after a heavy battle outside the city, its governor, Aparviz, surrendered.
January 645: Attack by al-'Ala' from Bahrain to nthe Sasanian Empire who reached as far as Estakhr.
January 653: Eighteen months later, Rabi was summoned to Basra, and was replaced by 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Samura. The inhabitants of Sakastan used this opportunity to rebel, defeating the Muslim garrison at Zrang.
2.1.First invasion of Mesopotamia
Was the first military campaign in Mesopotamia by the Rashidun Caliphate.
May 633: Battle of Walaja.
April 633: The Battle of Al Madhar, took place in Mesopotamia (Iraq) between the forces of the Rashidun Caliphate and the Sasanian Empire. Muslims, under Khalid ibn al-Walid's command, defeated the numerically superior Persian army.
May 633: Battle of Ullais.
June 633: In the last week of May 633, the important city of Hira fell to the Muslims led by the Rashidun Caliphate, specifically under the command of Khalid ibn al-Walid. Hira was a strategic city in present-day Iraq, marking a significant victory for the expanding Muslim empire.
July 633: In 633, the military leader Khalid, a companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, conquered the city of Ayn al-Tamr in the last week of July. This victory was part of the expansion of the Rashidun Caliphate, led by Caliph Abu Bakr, in the Arabian Peninsula.
December 633: He received news of the assembling of a large Persian army and then decided to defeat them all separately to avoid the risk of being defeated by a large unified Persian army. Four divisions of Persian and Christian Arab auxiliaries were present at Hanafiz, Zumiel, Sanni and Muzieh. Khalid divided his army into three units, and employed them in well-coordinated attacks against the Persians from three different sides at night, in the Battle of Muzayyah.
December 633: Battle of Saniyy.
November 634: The Battle of the Bridge took place in 634 between the Rashidun Caliphate, led by Abu Ubaid, and the Persians. The Persians emerged victorious in this battle, which occurred near Kufa, Iraq, marking a significant event in the ongoing conflict between the two powers.
November 634: The Battle of the Bridge in 634 saw the Sasanian Empire defeating Abu Ubaid, a prominent military leader of the Rashidun Caliphate. This victory marked a significant turning point in the Arab-Persian conflict during the early Islamic conquests.
January 635: After commander Khalid ibn al-Walid left Mesopotamia, the Persians pursued the Muslim army and recaptured most of their previously lost territory. Consequently, the Muslim forces were compelled to withdraw from the conquered areas and consolidate their position along the border, where they still held control over Namaraq, Kaskar, and Baqusiathain in southern Iraq.
2.2.Second invasion of Mesopotamia
Was the second military campaign in Mesopotamia by the Rashidun Caliphate.
January 637: Saad ibn Abi Waqqas, a prominent companion of the Prophet Muhammad, led the Rashidun Caliphate forces in the Battle of Babylon in 636. The victory resulted in the conquest of Babylon by the Rashidun Caliphate.
January 637: Rashidun conquest of Kūthā, Sābāṭ (Valashabad) and Bahurasīr (Veh-Ardashir).
May 637: Utbah ibn Ghazwan arrived in April 637, and captured al-Ubulla and Basra.
December 637: In April 637, the Arab general Hashim, serving under the Rashidun Caliphate, led 12,000 troops to victory over the Persians at the Battle of Jalawla. Following the battle, he laid siege to Jalawla for seven months before capturing the city.
January 638: Rashidun general Abdullah ibn Muta'am marched against Tikrit and captured the city with the help of Christians.
January 638: Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab of the Rashidun Caliphate sent an army to Mosul which surrendered on the condition of paying Jizya.
January 638: With victory at Jalawla and occupation of the Tikrit-Mosul region, the whole of Mesopotamia was under Muslim control.
January 638: Qa'qa defeated the Persian forces in the Battle of Khaniqeen and captured the city.
February 638: After the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah, the Persian forces retreated to Hulwan. Qa'qa ibn Amr, a prominent general of the Rashidun Caliphate, pursued them and successfully laid siege to the city. Hulwan fell to the Rashidun forces in January 638.
May 637: After the conquest of Ctesiphon, several detachments were immediately sent west to capture Circesium and Heet, both forts at the Byzantine border.
March 638: By February 638 there was a lull in the fighting on the Persian front. The Suwad, the Tigris valley, and the Euphrates valley were now under complete Muslim control.
2.3.Conquest of Armenia
The Muslims had conquered Byzantine Armenia in 638-639.
December 644: With the success of all three missions, the advance into Armenia came to an end with the death of Umar in November 644.
January 640: The Muslims conquered Byzantine Armenia in 638-639.
2.4.Conquest of Khuzestan
Was the conquest of Khuzestan by the Rashidun Caliphate.
November 640: This peace also proved short-lived once Hormuzan was reinforced by fresh Persian troops sent by Emperor Yazdgerd III in late 640. The troops concentrated at Tuster, north of Ahvaz. Umar sent the Governor of Kufa, Ammar ibn Yasir, the governor of Busra, Abu Musa, and Nouman ibn Muqarin there, where Hormuzan was defeated, captured and sent to Umar in Medina.
July 641: Next, Abu Musa marched against Junde Sabur, the only place left of military importance in the Persian province of Khuzistan, which surrendered to the Muslims after a siege of a few weeks.
2.5.Conquest of Hamadan
Was the conquest of Hamadan by the Rashidun Caliphate.
January 643: Within four years Yazdgerd III felt powerful enough to challenge the Muslims again for control of Mesopotamia. Accordingly, he recruited 100,000 hardened veterans and young volunteers from all parts of Persia, under the command of Mardan Shah, which marched to Nahavand for the last titanic struggle with the Caliphate. Although Umar had expressed a desire for Mesopotamia to be his easternmost frontier, the concentration of the Persian army at Nahavand forced him to act. The Muslim army defeated the Persians at the Battle of Nahavand in December 642.
April 643: The Muslims, led by the Rashidun Caliphate, captured the district of Hamadan in 643. The conquest was relatively easy as they faced minimal resistance from the local inhabitants.
2.6.Persian rebellion
Was a series of rebellions against the recent Islamic conquest in the Persian provinces of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Fars, and Sistan.
January 649: The main rebellions were in the Persian provinces of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Fars, Sistan (in 649).
January 650: Revolt in Makran.
January 651: Conquest of Khorasan.
2.7.Conquest of Khorasan
Was the conquest of Khorasan by the Rashidun Caliphate.
January 652: The remainder of Yazdegerd's army was defeated at the Battle of Oxus River and retreated across the Oxus to Transoxiana.
January 652: No resistance was offered at Merv, and the Muslims occupied the capital of Khurasan without firing a shot.
2.8.Conquest of Azerbaijan
Was the conquest of Azerbaijan by the Rashidun Caliphate.
January 652: On his way north Bukair was halted by a large Persian force under Isfandiyar, the son of Farrukhzad. A pitched battle was fought, after which Isfandiyar was defeated and captured. In return for his life, he agreed to surrender his estates in Azerbaijan and persuade others to submit to Muslim rule.
Was a 634-638 CE invasion of Byzantine Syria by the Rashidun Caliphate. .
3.1.Conquest of Syria
Conquest of Syria from the Byantines by the Rashidun Caliphate.
April 634: Arab commander ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣ conquers Elat.
May 634: Abū ʿUbayda and Shuraḥbīl continued their march and in early May 634 they reached the region between Bosra and al-Jābiya.
June 634: Khalid was then immediately dispatched to the Syrian front. The leader moved from Hira, Iraq, at the beginning of June 634. After crossing the desert, Khalid's army arrived on the Syrian front at Tadmur (Palmyra), in central Syria, at the beginning of June.
July 634: Battles of Qaryatayn and Ḥuwwārīn.
July 634: The Muslims, led by the Rashidun Caliphate, defeated the Byzantines in the battle of Ajnadayn on July 30, 634. The battle was a significant victory for the Muslims, led by the military commander Khalid ibn al-Walid, against the Byzantine Empire.
September 634: The city of Damascus was besieged for 30 days by the Rashidun Caliphate in 634. It was conquered by the Muslim forces led by Khalid ibn al-Walid, a prominent military commander and companion of the Prophet Muhammad.
January 635: The Rashidun Caliphate needed six years to conquer the entire Arabian Peninsula (628-634).
January 635: Battle of Fahl.
3.2.Conquest of Northern Syria
Conquest of northern Syria from the Byzantines by the Rashidun Caliphate.
November 635: In 635, the military commander Khalid ibn al-Walid, leading the Rashidun Caliphate forces, conquered the territories of Shayzar, Afamiya, and Matar al-Hamz.
April 636: After a two-month siege, Emesa was conquered in March 636 by the Muslims.
August 636: In the 7th century, during the Muslim conquest of the Levant, the Tanukhids fought with the Romans against the Muslims, including in the Battle of Yarmouk. After Yarmouk, their status as foederati ended.
August 636: The Ghassanids remained a vassal state of the Byzantines until their rulers were overthrown by the Muslims in the conquest of Syria-Palestine, at the time of the second Caliph ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb in the 7th century, which ended with the Islamic victory in the battle of the Yarmuk. It was in this battle that 12,000 Ghassanid Arabs were defeated by the Muslims of Khālid b. al-Walid.
3.3.Conquest of Palestina
Conquest of Palestine from the Byzantines by the Rashidun Caliphate.
November 635: In 635, the Rashidun Caliphate, led by Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab, conquered Palestine, Jordan, and southern Syria, excluding Jerusalem and Caesarea. This marked a significant expansion of Muslim territory in the region.
3.4.Final Stage of the conquest in Syria and Palestina
Consolidation of the Rashidun Caliphate conquests in the Levant.
July 637: Khalid defeated a large Byzantine force in the Battle of Hazir near the fortress of Qinnasrin and then the city of Hazir surrendered to Khalid.
October 637: The taking of the Azaz fortress in 637 was a significant military victory for the Rashidun Caliphate, led by the renowned military commander Khalid ibn al-Walid. The fortress was a strategic stronghold in the region, and its capture played a crucial role in the expansion of the caliphate's territory.
October 637: Antioch was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate after the Battle of the Iron Bridge.
November 637: In October 637, Aleppo surrendered, since it no longer had any hope of an arrival of reinforcements from Constantinople.
November 637: Then it was the turn of the remaining cities dominated by the Byzantines along the Mediterranean coast: Latakia, Jabla and Tartus.
November 637: Khalid was then sent to conquer north-eastern Syria up to Manbij and the Euphrates.
3.5.Conquest of Southern Anatolia
Conquest of southern Anatolia from the Byzantines by the Rashidun Caliphate.
September 638: In the summer of 638, the Rashidun Caliphate, led by the military commander Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah, made significant conquests in Anatolia, capturing territories including Tarsus, Marash, and Malatya. These conquests expanded the caliphate's influence in the region.
November 638: The action unleashed fierce reactions from the Caliphate, and the Jazīra, the last base of the Eastern Roman Empire in the Near East, was conquered that same year.
November 638: By 638, much of Anatolia was under the control of the Caliphate.
January 639: In order to buy time in the preparation of his defenses it was essential to keep the Muslim troops busy in Syria, for this purpose he pushed the Christian Arabs of the Jazira to take up arms against the Muslims. Spurred on by the same religious faith, these Arabs set about crossing the Euphrates and invading northern Syria from the east.
January 639: Soon the Christian Arabs realized that they were trapped because their territory was about to be invaded and at the same time reinforcements were arriving for the Muslims besieged in Emesa. Therefore they decided to return to the Jazīra.
3.6.Muslim conquest of Cyprus, Crete and Rhodes
Conquest of Cyprus, Crete and Rhodes by the Rashidun Caliphate.
January 650: The Rashidun Caliphate, led by the Muslim commander Muawiya, launched a successful military campaign from their bases in Syria. They conquered Cyprus and Crete in 649, followed by the island of Rhodes. This expansion marked the further spread of Islam in the Mediterranean region.
Was a military campaign by the Rashidun Caliphate that ended seven-century-long period of Roman reign over Egypt.
December 640: On December 22, Cyrus of Alexandria signed a treaty with the Muslims. The treaty recognized indirect Muslim sovereignty over the whole of Egypt, and directly over the Thebaid.
January 640: In late December 639 or early January 640, the Muslim army reached Pelusium.
March 640: In February 640, an assault led by the commander Hudhayfa ibn Wala successfully captured the city.
March 640: Fall of the city of Bilbays, which took place towards the end of March 640.
June 640: They then headed to Oxyrhynchus (Per-Medjed), which was defeated.
July 640: Battle of Heliopolis.
August 640: After the battle of Heliopolis, the Muslim conquered of the two cities of Fayyum and Abuit as well as the entire province of Fayyum from the Byzantines.
April 641: The Arab siege of Alexandria in 641 was led by Amr ibn al-As, a military commander of the Rashidun Caliphate. The city was a key stronghold of the Byzantine Empire in Egypt, and its fall marked the end of Byzantine rule in the region.
October 641: Alexandria and whole Egypt including Cyrenaica conquered by Rashidun Caliphate.
Fought between the Rashidun Caliphate and the Rai kingdom ruled by Raja Rasil in early 644. The Makran coast up to Indus river and western territories of Rai Kingdom were annexed by the Rashidun Caliphate.
April 644: Conflict fought between the Rashidun Caliphate and the Rai kingdom ruled by Raja Rasil in early 644. Makran coast up to Indus river and western territories of Rai Kingdom annexed by Rashidun Caliphate.
Was the conquest of Armenia by the Rashidun Caliphate.
Was the Muslim conquest of Maghreb by the Rashidun and later Umayyad Caliphate.
January 709: The Christian Berber kingdoms were conquered by the Umayyads.
January 709: Kingdom of Cabaon conquered by the Arabs.
January 710: By 709, all of North Africa was under the control of the Umayyad Caliphate.
7.1.First Muslim Invasion of the Maghreb
Was the Muslim conquest of Tripolitania.
January 648: The Caliphate took Tripolitania.
7.2.Second Muslim invasion of Maghreb
Was the Muslim conquest of territories in Tunisia.
January 671: In 670 the city of Kairouan (Tunisia) was established by the Umayyad Caliphate.
January 684: Battle of Tahouda: Capture of Kairouan by Koceïla.
January 689: Battle of Mammes (688): Capture of Kairouan by Umayyad forces.
January 684: Battle of Tahouda: Expulsion of the Umayyads from present-day Tunisia.
7.3.Third Muslim Invasion of the Maghreb
Was the Muslim conquest of territories in Tunisia.
January 696: In 695, the Umayyad Caliphate conquered Carthage.
January 699: Battle of Carthage (698).
January 699: Battle of Wadi Nini: Expulsion of the Umayyads from Cyrenaica.
January 701: General Hasan ibn al-Nu'man advanced in the Maghreb, his armies taking the city of Icosium in 700.
January 704: Battle of Tabarka.
January 698: Emperor Leontius sent the navy under the command of John the Patrician and the droungarios Tiberius Apsimarus. They entered the harbor and successfully recaptured it in a stunning surprise attack in 697.
Was an Arab invasion of Cyprus.
Were a series of conflicts fought between the armies of the Khazar Khaganate and the Rashidun, Umayyad, and Abbasid caliphates and their respective vassals.
9.1.First Arab-Khazar War
Was a war between the Khazar Kahaganate and the Rashidun Caliphate.
January 653: The Khazars abandoned Balanjar and moved their capital further north, in an attempt to evade the reach of the Arab armies.
February 653: The Khazars abandoned Balanjar and moved their capital further north, in an attempt to evade the reach of the Arab armies.
9.2.Second Arab-Khazar War
Was a war between the Khazar Kahaganate and the Umayyad Caliphate.
January 732: Sa'id ibn Yazid was a prominent Umayyad general who successfully recaptured the city of Akhlat on Lake Van in 731.
August 722: Battle of Balanjar.
January 730: By 729, the Arabs had lost control of northeastern Transcaucasia.
December 730: The battle in 730 in Ardabil was between the Arab general al-Jarrah and the Khazars led by Barjik. The Khazars emerged victorious, defeating al-Jarrah's army of 25,000 soldiers. This victory solidified the Khazar Khaganate's control over the territory.
January 741: He restored the provinces of Albania to Muslim allegiance after meting out exemplary punishment to the inhabitants of Khaydhan, who resisted his advance, and reached Derbent, where he found a Khazar garrison of 1,000 men with their families installed. .
Were the 7th and 8th century conquests, by Umayyad and Abbasid Arabs, of Transoxiana, the land between the Oxus (Amu Darya) and Jaxartes (Syr Darya) rivers, a part of Central Asia that today includes all or parts of Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan.
January 671: It was not until the appointment of Ziyad ibn Abi Sufyan to the government of Iraq and the eastern Caliphate that the Arabs undertook a systematic pacification campaign in Khurasan. Peroz was evicted and once again fled to China.
January 677: Sa'id ibn Uthman was a prominent military leader and governor under the Umayyad Caliphate. Samarkand was a key city in Central Asia known for its strategic location on the Silk Road. The capture of Samarkand by Sa'id ibn Uthman in 676 was a significant victory for the Umayyad Caliphate in expanding their territory and influence in the region.
January 716: The larger part of Transoxiana was conquered by the Umayyad leader Qutayba ibn Muslim in the reign of al-Walid I (r. 705-715).
January 716: Umayyad commander Qutayba ibn Muslim conquered the strategic Central Asian cities of Bukhara, Samarkand, Khwarezem and Farghana between 705 and 715 CE, annexing nearly the whole of Transoxiana north of the Iranian plateau and bordering the contemporary Tang dynasty of China.
January 717: The deposed king fled to Kucha (seat of Anxi Protectorate) and sought Chinese intervention. The Chinese sent 10,000 troops under Zhang Xiaosong to Ferghana. He defeated Alutar and the Arab occupation force at Namangan and reinstalled Ikhshid on the throne.
January 717: The deposed king fled to Kucha (seat of Anxi Protectorate), and sought Chinese intervention. The Tang dynasty sent 10,000 troops under Zhang Xiaosong to Ferghana. He defeated Alutar and the Arab occupation force at Namangan and reinstalled the ikhshid on the throne.
January 657: The local population, led by Qarin (possibly a member of the House of Karen) rose in revolt. The Arabs evacuated all of Khurasan, and according to Chinese sources, the princes of Tokharistan restored Yazdegerd III's son Peroz as titular king of Persia for a time.
Arab occupation of Amorium.
Arab conquest of Byzantine Cappadocia and Cylicia.
Was an Umayyad Caliphate invasion of the Iberian Peninsula from c. 710-780. The conquest resulted in the defeat of the Visigothic Kingdom and the establishment of the Umayyad Wilayah of Al-Andalus.
13.1.Revolt of Asturias
The Hispano-Visigothic nobleman Pelagius began a revolt against the Islamic rule of Hispania and established the Kingdom of Asturias.
13.2.Campaign of Septimania
Umayyad military campaign in Septimania (southern France).
Was the invasion of Sindh (Pakistan) initiated by the Umayyad Caliphate.
January 713: In the year 712, Muhammad bin Qasim, an Umayyad general, sailed from the Persian Gulf into Sindh and conquered both Sindh and the lower Punjab (corresponding to Multan), both regions in northwestern India straddling the course of the Indus River.
Arab conquest of Byzantine Amasea and Mishtia.
Were a series of expansionistic military campaigns by the umayyad Caliphate in the Indian subcontinent.
16.1.Campaign by Muhammad bin Qasim
Campaign in India by Umayyad commander Muhammad bin Qasim.
January 716: Campaign by Muhammad bin Qasim.
16.2.Campaign by Al Junayd
Campaign in India by Umayyad commander Muhammad Al Junayd.
January 727: In 726, the Umayyad Caliphate subdued territories including Qassa (Kutch), al-Mandal (perhaps Okha), Dahnaj, Surast (Saurashtra), and Barus or Barwas (Bharuch) in the Indian subcontinent. These regions were important centers of trade and commerce during this time.
A combined land and sea offensive by the Muslim Arabs of the Umayyad Caliphate against the capital city of the Byzantine Empire.
Was the invasion of Deccan (India) initiated by the Umayyad Caliphate.
January 734: Arab invaders who had established themselves in the Sindh made a push into the Deccan.
Selected Sources
Tucker, S.C. (2011) Battles that changed History - An Encyclopedia of World Conflict, ABC-CLIO, pp.94
Early Muslim conquests
