This article is about the specific polity Carthage and therefore only includes events related to its territory and not to its possessions or colonies. If you are interested in the possession, this is the link to the article about the nation which includes all possessions as well as all the different incarnations of the nation.
If you are looking for the page with the statistics about this polity you can find it here:All Statistics
Was an empire during Antiquity. Centered in North Africa with territories in Italy and in Spain, it originated from a Pheonician colony in modern-day Tunisia. A great power in the Mediterranean Basin, it entered in conflict with the emerging Power of Rome. During the Punic Wars, the Roman Republic was able to fully conquer Carthage and its Empire.
Establishment
January 649 BC: Carthage most likely became independent around 650 BC.
Chronology
Interactive Chronologies with maps are available in the section Changes Navigation
Were a series of conflicts fought between ancient Carthage and the Greek city-states led by Syracuse (Sicily) over the control of Sicily and the western Mediterranean.
January 539 BC: The Phoenician city of Motya remained independent until becoming part of the Carthaginian hegemony some time after 540 BC.
1.1.Second Sicilian War
Was a conflict fought between ancient Carthage and the Greek city-states led by Syracuse (Sicily) over the control of Sicily and the western Mediterranean.
January 408 BC: Hannibal Mago, a Carthaginian general, destroyed Himera in -409 after winning the Second Battle against the Greek city-state. This victory allowed Carthage to gain control of the territory previously held by Himera.
January 408 BC: Hannibal Mago succeeded in capturing Selinus after winning the Battle of Selinus.
January 408 BC: After the Punic invasion of 409 BC, the ancient Greek city of Herakleia Minoa, located in Sicily, fell under the control of Carthage. This marked a significant shift in power in the region, as Carthage expanded its influence in the Mediterranean.
February 408 BC: Hannibal Mago, a Carthaginian general, destroyed Himera after winning the Second Battle against the Greek city-state. The territory of Himera then went to Akragas, another Greek city-state in Sicily. This event took place in -408.
January 403 BC: The plague struck the Carthaginian army again, and Himilco agreed to a peace treaty that left the Carthaginians in control of all the recent conquests, with Selinus, Thermae, Akragas, Gela and Camarina as tributary vassals.
1.2.Third Sicilian War
Was a conflict fought between ancient Carthage and the Greek city-states led by Syracuse (Sicily) over the control of Sicily and the western Mediterranean.
September 398 BC: By 398 BC, Dionysius had consolidated his strength and broke the peace treaty, commencing the Siege of Motya and capturing the city.
January 397 BC: Himilco responded decisively to Dionysius I, leading an expedition which not only reclaimed Motya, but also captured Messina.
September 397 BC: Himilco laid siege to Syracuse itself after decisively defeating the Greeks in the naval Battle of Catana. .
January 395 BC: In 396 BC a plague ravaged the Carthaginian forces, and they collapsed.
January 395 BC: Carthage lost her new Greek conquests - Motya, Messina, Selinus, Thermae, Akragas, Gela and Camarina - to Syrakousai.
1.3.Fourth Sicilian War
Was a conflict fought between ancient Carthage and the Greek city-states led by Syracuse (Sicily) over the control of Sicily and the western Mediterranean.
January 375 BC: After the battle of Cronium the Carthaginians received Selinous and Acragas.
1.4.Sixth Sicilian War
Was a conflict fought between ancient Carthage and the Greek city-states led by Syracuse (Sicily) over the control of Sicily and the western Mediterranean.
January 338 BC: After the Battle of the Crimissus the border between Carthage and Syracuse is set at the Halcays river ("The following peace treaty left Carthage in control of territories west of the Halcyas river.").
1.5.Seventh Sicilian War
Was a conflict fought between ancient Carthage and the Greek city-states led by Syracuse (Sicily) over the control of Sicily and the western Mediterranean.
January 310 BC: Hamilcar, grandson of Hanno the Navigator, successfully led the Carthaginian counterattack. He defeated Agathocles in the Battle of the Himera River in 311 BC. Agathocles had to retreat to Syracuse while Hamilcar won control over the rest of Sicily.
January 310 BC: Hamilcar, son of Gisgo and grandson of Hanno the Great, led a campaign against Agathocles of Syracuse during the Third Sicilian War. He laid siege of Syracuse from 311 to 309 BC.
January 309 BC: The two armies met in the first Battle of White Tunis outside Carthage. The Carthaginian army, under Hanno and Hamilcar, was defeated. Agathocles and his forces laid siege to Carthage, but it was too strongly fortified for them to assault. Instead, the Greeks slowly occupied the whole of northern Tunisia.
January 308 BC: In desperation, Agathocles secretly led an expedition of 14,000 men to the mainland of Africa, hoping to save his rule by leading a counterstrike against Carthage itself. In this, he was successful: Carthage was forced to recall Hamilcar and most of his army from Sicily to face the new and unexpected threat.
January 306 BC: The Syracusan invaders were defeated by Carthage in 307 BC.
January 305 BC: Syracusan tyrant Agathocles negotiated a peace treaty with the Carthaginians in 306 BC, in which he retained control of the eastern half of the island.
Was an ancient Greek war fought between Athens and Sparta and their respective allies for the hegemony of the Greek world.
2.1.Sicilian Expedition (Peloponnesian War)
Was an Athenian military expedition in Sicily against the poleis of Syracuse, an ally of Sparta. The expedition ended in a devastating defeat for the Athenian forces.
November 415 BC: During the Peloponnesian War, the Athenians, led by general Alcibiades, conquered Hykkara, an ally of Segesta in -415. They enslaved the population and razed the city to the ground before moving towards Segesta and Catania.
December 415 BC: During the Sicilian Expedition, the Athenians, led by Alcibiades, conquered Hykkara in -415, a city allied with Segesta. They enslaved the population and destroyed the city. After the conquest, the Athenian troops split, with one group heading towards Catania and the other towards Segesta.
Was a war between the Roman Republic and the Kingdom of Epirus.
3.1.Sicilian Expedition (Pyrrhic War)
Was a military expedition of Pyrrhus, the ruler of Epirus, in Sicily.
January 276 BC: In -277, the city of Panormus was taken by storm by the forces of Pyrrhus, the King of Epirus. Pyrrhus was a renowned military leader who sought to expand his kingdom by conquering various territories in Sicily. The capture of Panormus was a significant victory for Pyrrhus in his campaign to establish dominance in the region.
January 276 BC: In -277 BC, the Greek general Pyrrhus of Epirus besieged the city of Eryx, which was heavily fortified and defended by Carthaginian forces. Despite the challenges posed by the natural defenses and the large garrison, Pyrrhus eventually succeeded in capturing the city through a determined assault.
January 276 BC: In -277, Iaetia surrendered without a fight to King Pyrrhus of Epirus. Pyrrhus was a renowned military leader known for his costly victories, leading to the term "Pyrrhic victory." This conquest expanded the territory of Epirus in ancient Greece.
January 276 BC: Pyrrhus subdued the areas under Carthaginian control. After seizing Eryx he moved against the Mamertine mercenaries who had seized Messana.
January 276 BC: Pyrrhus went to Sicily and took the leadership of the Greek cities of eastern and southern Sicily in a war against the Carthaginians. Diodorus related that Pyrrhus defeated the Carthaginian garrison in Heraclea Minoa and seized Azones. Selinus, Halicyae, Segesta and other cities went over to him.
January 275 BC: While Pyrrhus was besieging this city, the Carthaginians brought over a big army and large quantities of grain from Africa.
March 275 BC: End of Lilybaeum siege.
April 275 BC: Molossian king Pyrrhus leaves Sicily.
Were a series of wars between 264 and 146 BC fought between Rome and Carthage. The wars ended with the Roman conquest of the Carthaginian Empire.
4.1.First Punic War
Was the first of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage, the two main powers of the western Mediterranean. .
January 263 BC: In the First Punic War it was at first dependent upon Carthage.
January 258 BC: The land conflict in -259 extended to Sardinia and Corsica, where the city of Alalia was conquered by the Roman Republic. This marked a significant expansion of Roman territory under the leadership of the Roman consul Gaius Sulpicius Paterculus and the Roman general Lucius Cornelius Scipio.
January 255 BC: Tunisi conquered by Roman Republic.
January 255 BC: Roman general Regulus defeated the Carthaginian army in the battle of Adys.
June 255 BC: Carthage, having hired the Spartan mercenary Santippus to reorganize its forces, managed to stop the Roman advance. Xanthippos defeated Regulus in the battle of Tunis and captured him. The Roman invasion of Africa ended with a Carthaginian victory.
March 241 BC: After the death of the tyrant Phintias, Akragas passed under Carthaginian control.
March 241 BC: Battle of the Aegates Islands: around 117 Carthaginian and 30 Roman ships (Diodorus) sunk in Roman victory, and Carthaginian survivors flee. Carthage evacuates Sicily.
4.1.1.Invasion of Sicily
Was the Roman invasion of Sicily during the First Punic War.
January 260 BC: The Carthaginian forces shut themselves up in Agrigento, the city was besieged by the Romans who conquered it after seven months. Segesta allied with Rome.
January 253 BC: The Romans besiege and take Panormus (Palermo) on the northern coast of Sicily
January 250 BC: During the First Punic War, Carthaginian general Hanno reinforced the garrison in Sicily and successfully retook the city of Agrigento in -251. This victory was part of Carthage's efforts to maintain control over the island and push back against Roman advances.
January 248 BC: During the First Punic War, the Roman consul Junius Pullo faced a setback when his fleet was lost to a storm. However, he was able to overcome this by successfully capturing the strategic city of Erice in -249, further solidifying Roman control in Sicily.
January 244 BC: It was not until after the fall of Panormus (modern Palermo) in 254 BC that Tyndaris expelled the Carthaginian garrison and joined the Roman alliance.
January 241 BC: The Romans managed to occupy Draepanum (today's Trapani).
4.2.Second Punic War
Was the second of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage, the two main powers of the western Mediterranean. It ended with a Roman victory and the territories of Carthage were reduced to its core territory in modern-day Tunisia.
4.2.1.Spanish Front (Second Punic War)
Was the Carthaginian military campaign in the Iberian Peninsula during the Second Punic War.
January 218 BC: Hannibal, with the taking of Sagunto and with the subsequent crossing, in arms, of the river Ebro, broke the treaties of 241 BC and 226 BC, creating the conditions for the outbreak of the Second Punic War.
June 218 BC: After crossing the Ebro, in about two months he defeated, however losing as many as 22,000 men in deaths and defections, the populations that stood between the Carthaginian territory and the Pyrenees (including the Volci), where he left a contingent of over 10,000 infantry to protect them and 1,000 cavalry under the command of Hanno.
June 217 BC: Battle of the Ebro River.
April 215 BC: Battle of Dertosa.
January 211 BC: Scipio resumed the Roman offensive in Spain in 212 BC managing to reconquer Sagunto.
June 209 BC: Siege of Cartagena.
January 207 BC: Battle of Baecula. Roman victory.
January 205 BC: Battle of Ilipa.
4.2.2.Italian Front (Second Punic War)
Was the Carthaginian military campaign in the Italian Peninsula led by General Hannibal during the Second Punic War.
November 218 BC: Battle of the Ticino.
December 218 BC: Battle of the Ticino.
December 218 BC: Battle of Trebbia.
January 217 BC: The Romans dedicated themselves to the fortification of the cities of Cisalpine Gaul and ordered the colonists, 6,000 for each new city to be founded, to be in the established place within thirty days. The first of the colonies was founded on the Po river and was called Placentia, the other was located north of the river and called Cremona.
January 217 BC: The first military action consisted in conquering the Punic stronghold of Melita, which immediately surrendered without a fight.
January 217 BC: Battle of Trebbia.
February 217 BC: Battle of Piacenza.
March 217 BC: Battle of Piacenza.
June 217 BC: Battle of Lake Trasimeno. Victory of Carthage.
June 217 BC: In -217, Hannibal, a Carthaginian military commander, continued his march through Italy and reached the territories of Luceria and Argos Hippium. These areas were plundered by his soldiers as part of his campaign during the Second Punic War against Rome.
July 217 BC: Battle of Lake Trasimeno.
July 217 BC: In -217, Hannibal, a Carthaginian military commander, led his troops to plunder the territories of Luceria and Argos Hippium in Apulia. This marked a significant advance in his campaign against the Roman Republic during the Second Punic War.
December 217 BC: The Carthaginians eventually settled in the territory of Geronio where an entrenched camp was built.
January 216 BC: Returning to Italy, Servilius contented himself with reoccupying Pantelleria which had fallen into Carthaginian hands.
August 216 BC: In the Battle of Cannae on August 2, 216 BCE, Hannibal Barca’s Carthaginians destroyed two Roman armies in perhaps the most famous double envelopment in history.
September 216 BC: In -216, after the Battle of Cannae, Hannibal sent his lieutenant Annone to Bruzio in Calabria to secure the territory for Carthage. The Bruttians, a local tribe, supported the Carthaginians in their uprising against Roman control.
September 216 BC: Hannibal lost between 3,000 and 6,000 men at Canne but achieved, after the crushing victory, the first important political-strategic results. Some centers began to abandon the Romans. Hannibal sent his brother Magone south to Bruttium with part of his forces, while he and the bulk of the army headed to Campania where he managed to obtain the defection of Capua after a series of negotiations.
September 216 BC: The Piganiol in fact writes that Hannibal, after having obtained the alliance of Daunia, excluding Lucera, and of the Samnites of the most impervious regions, also secured that of Capua, to which the Carthaginian promised the autonomy of the city and to place it at the head of the Italian confederation, replacing it in Rome.
September 216 BC: The Carthaginian army left the area of Cannae after the battle.
November 216 BC: Siege of Nuceria Alfaterna.
April 215 BC: During the Second Punic War, the Carthaginian general Hannibal besieged and captured the important center of Casilinum in -215. This victory was part of Hannibal's campaign to conquer Roman territory in Italy.
May 215 BC: During the Second Punic War, the Carthaginian general Hannibal besieged Casilinum, a strategic center in Italy. The Roman Republic eventually lost control of the territory to Hannibal after a prolonged siege lasting from late 216 to early 215 BC.
April 212 BC: Battle of Tarentum. Carthaginian General Hannibal conquers Tarentum.
January 211 BC: The first battle of Herdonia was fought in 212 BC, during the Second Punic War, between the Carthaginian army of Hannibal and the Roman army. The Carthaginians defeated the Romans and occupid Apulia.
January 209 BC: Magone landed and conquered Genoa.
January 209 BC: Siege of Agrigento.
January 208 BC: The siege of Taranto in 209 BC led to the reconquest of the city, and its port, by the Romans.
June 207 BC: The battle of the Metauro ended with the complete victory of Rome; the Carthaginian army was destroyed and Hasdrubal fell fighting in the field. Hannibal learned of his brother's tragic fate only when Hasdrubal's head was thrown into his camp by the Romans. He decided to abandon Apulia and Lucania again and return to Bruzio. The battle confirmed Roman supremacy over Italy. Without Hasdrubal's army to support him, Hannibal was forced to evacuate pro-Carthaginian cities across much of southern Italy and retreat to Bruttium.
January 204 BC: Scipio Africanus, a Roman general, successfully recaptured the port of Locri from Hannibal, the Carthaginian military commander, in -205. This victory was a significant blow to Hannibal's forces during the Second Punic War.
January 202 BC: After the Roman victories at the Campi Magni, the Carthaginian Senate, seeing that the city was practically defenseless, ordered the remnants of the two armies operating outside Africa, that of Hannibal and that of Mago, to return to defend their homeland. The two generals thus left the territories occupied in Liguria and Calabria.
4.2.3.African front (Second Punic War)
Was the African theatre of the Second Punic War that included the Roman invasion of Tunisia led by General Scipio Africanus.
June 204 BC: Scipio left Sicily to ferry his forces to Africa. Rough seas and fog forced his fleet to land near Utica.
January 203 BC: In -204, the Roman general Scipio Africanus conquered the city of Selica, located in modern-day Tunisia. This victory was a significant part of the Roman Republic's campaign against Carthage during the Second Punic War.
January 202 BC: Battle of the Campi Magni.
October 202 BC: The battle of Zama took place between the Roman Republic, led by Scipio Africanus, and Carthage, led by Hannibal Barca. The defeat of Carthage marked the end of the Second Punic War and solidified Roman dominance in the Mediterranean.
October 202 BC: The battle of Zama was the last battle of the Second Punic War and determined the definitive downsizing of Carthage as a military and political power in the Mediterranean Sea.
January 201 BC: The Romans and their Mauretanian allies arrive at Naraggara (Sidi Youssef).
4.2.4.End of the Second Punic War
Was the peace treaty between Rome and Carthage after the Second Punic War that reduced the Carthaginian territory to Tunisia.
February 201 BC: At the conclusion of the Second Punic War, Carthage was compelled to accept peace terms that marked the end of its status as a Mediterranean power. Carthage was prohibited from taking up arms without Rome's permission and had to evacuate territories west of the "Punic trenches," which separated Carthaginian lands from Numidian ones. This evacuation favored Massinissa, who seized the opportunity to annex large parts of Carthaginian territory. Additionally, Carthage lost all its territories in the Iberian Peninsula.
January 200 BC: At the end of the Second Punic War, the Romans granted control of Numidia to Masinissa, the king of the Massylii tribe. This decision solidified Masinissa's power in the region and marked the beginning of the Kingdom of Numidia under his rule.
4.3.Third Punic War
Was the third and last of the Punic Wars fought between Carthage and Rome. Carthage was conquered and became the Roman province of Africa.
January 149 BC: The large North African port city of Utica went over to Rome in 149 BC. Aware that its harbour would greatly facilitate any assault on Carthage, the Senate and the People's Assembly declared war. Utica again defied Carthage in the Third Punic War, when it surrendered to Rome shortly before the breakout of war in 150 BC.
January 148 BC: Siege of Carthage. Hinterland of the city of Carthage occupied by the Roman army.
January 147 BC: Neapolis surrendered to the Romans and was subsequently sacked.
January 146 BC: Battle of Nepheris.
June 146 BC: The siege of the city lasted two years and ended in 146 BC. with the looting and complete destruction of Carthage.
June 146 BC: After the fall of Carthage in 146 BC, the Balearic Islands seem to have been virtually independent.
After the First Punic War Carthage had to fight with an uprising of African settlements revolting against Carthaginian control.
January 237 BC: Taking advantage of a revolt, Rome occupied Sardinia and Corsica.
After the end of the First Punic War, Carthage expanded its possessions in the Iberian peninsula under the leadership of the Barcid family.
January 230 BC: Until 231 BC, the Carthaginians pushed north and east along the east coast as far as Cape Blanc, where a naval battle was won and Alicante was founded.
January 225 BC: The Romans stipulated a treaty which placed the Ebro as a limit to the expansion of Carthage.
January 599 BC: With the decline of Phoenicia after the Assyrian invasions, Ibiza came under the control of Carthage, also a former Phoenician colony.
January 599 BC: Hippo (Dyarrhitus), a city in North Africa, was under the control of Carthage in the 6th century BC. Carthage was a powerful ancient city-state located in present-day Tunisia, known for its dominance in trade and naval power in the Mediterranean region.
January 599 BC: The territory of Hippo [Dyarrhitus] came under the hegemony of Carthage in -600 BC. Carthage was a powerful ancient city-state located in present-day Tunisia, known for its dominance in trade and naval power in the Mediterranean region.
January 599 BC: In the late 6th century BC Carthage took control of part of Sardinia and Cagliari grew substantially under their domination.
January 599 BC: Malaka, a territory in -600 BC, came under the hegemony of Carthage. Carthage was a powerful ancient city-state located in present-day Tunisia, known for its dominance in trade and naval power in the Mediterranean region.
January 569 BC: Hadrumetum, located in present-day Tunisia, was a Phoenician colony that fell under the control of the Carthaginian Empire after Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon's siege of Tyre in the 580s and 570s BC. Carthage, a powerful city-state in North Africa, expanded its influence in the region through conquest and trade.
January 569 BC: Hadrumete, a city in North Africa, became part of the Carthaginian Empire after Nebuchadnezzar II, the king of Babylon, successfully besieged Tyre in the 580s and 570s BC. This event marked the expansion of Carthage's influence in the region.
January 549 BC: A military campaign of Carthaginian general Malchus in Western Sicily led to the expansion of the Pheoanician influence in the island.
January 529 BC: Gades occupied by Carthaginians.
January 509 BC: From the end of 510 BC. around, the central-southern part of Sardinia, following a second Punic expedition, entered the Carthaginian orbit.
January 499 BC: Lixos under the control of Carthage.
January 499 BC: By the 5th century BC, Carthage, a powerful city-state in North Africa, had established dominance over the Phoenicians in the western Mediterranean. This expansion of Carthaginian influence included the acquisition of territories such as Kossyra and Iol in 500 BC.
January 499 BC: The Phoenician colony of Rusadir is inglobated in the Carthagean Empire.
January 499 BC: The southern and western part of Sardinia was annexed by the Carthaginians at the end of the 6th century BC.
January 499 BC: Like most western Phoenician settlements, Leptis became part of the Carthaginian Empire.
January 499 BC: The Carthaginians developed Tingis as an important port of their empire by the 5th century BC.
January 499 BC: The Carthaginians, a powerful ancient civilization based in North Africa, developed Tingis (modern-day Tangier) as an important port city by the 5th century BC. Tingis served as a key hub for trade and naval activities for the Carthaginian Empire.
January 499 BC: After the demise of Phoenicia, Sabratha fell under the sphere of influence of Carthage.
January 499 BC: Tartessos was subdued by Carthage around 500 BC.
January 499 BC: The Phoenician colony of Ruspina is inglobated in the Carthagean Empire.
January 499 BC: The Phoenician colony of Onuba is inglobated in the Carthagean Empire.
January 499 BC: In the late 6th century BC Carthage took control of part of Sardinia and Cagliari grew substantially under their domination.
January 499 BC: The Phoenician colony of Meninx is inglobated in the Carthagean Empire.
January 499 BC: The Phoenician colony of Melita is inglobated in the Carthagean Empire.
January 499 BC: The Phoenician colony of Lixos is conquered by Carthage.
January 479 BC: Gozo came under the control of Carthage in 480 BC.
January 479 BC: According to the most commonly accepted point of view, Carthage in 480 B.C. turned to its hinterland following the defeat of Himera. However, this thesis is increasingly challenged by historians who believe that the African establishment became more important late. The fifth century would have seen in this perspective only an extension of the space needed to feed a growing population.
January 399 BC: By the beginning of the fourth century BC, the Carthaginians had become the "superior power" of the western Mediterranean subjugating many neighboring Libyan tribes, and occupying coastal North Africa from Morocco to western Libya.
January 399 BC: By the fourth century BC, Utica came under Punic control.
January 399 BC: Between 480 and 400 B.C. the island of Melita (Greek) came under the control of Carthage.
January 338 BC: Akragas was refounded in IV Century BC.
January 300 BC: Hippana, an indigenous community, refounded as a Hellenic polis in the IV Century.
January 299 BC: From the 3rd-2nd centuries BC it issued a sizable corpus of coinage with many coins depicting the Phoenico-Punic god Melqart on the obvers.
January 299 BC: Corsica conquered by Carthage.
January 299 BC: During the 3rd century BC, Carthage made Iberia the new base for its empire and its campaigns against the Roman Republic, and occupied most of Andalusia.
January 299 BC: The Carthaginians wrested Oea from the Greeks.
January 299 BC: By 300 BC the last indipendent phoenician colony in southern Spain is absorbed by Carthage.
January 299 BC: The Portus Syracusanus was classically identified on the site of the current Porto Vecchio, however there are several scholars from different eras who refute this thesis, arguing that it may have been in the gulf of Santa Amanza, or in Bonifacio.
January 263 BC: The Greek colony of Eolian Islands fell under the control of Carthage.
January 263 BC: During its greatest territorial expansion in 264 BC, Carthage gained control of the Pelagian Islands.
January 263 BC: During its greatest territorial expansion in 264 BC, Carthage gained control of the Balearic Islands.
January 251 BC: During the First Punic War, the islands were the scene of clashes between Rome and Carthage and Lipara was conquered by Rome in 252.
Disestablishment
January 146 BC: Battle of Nepheris.
June 146 BC: After the fall of Carthage in 146 BC, the Balearic Islands seem to have been virtually independent.
June 146 BC: The siege of the city lasted two years and ended in 146 BC. with the looting and complete destruction of Carthage.
Selected Sources
Eutropio, Breviarium ab Urbe condita, III, 8-9
Appiano, Guerra annibalica, VII, 1, 3
Eutropio, Breviarium ab Urbe condita, III, 14
Eutropio, Breviarium ab Urbe condita, III, 14, 16
Eutropio, Breviarium ab Urbe condita, III, 15 - 18
Eutropio, Breviarium ab Urbe condita, III, 18
Eutropio, Breviarium ab Urbe condita, III, 7
Livio, Ab Urbe condita libri, XXVI, 47
Polibio, III, 74, 79
Polibio, III, 9-33
Strabone, Geografia, V, 2,9
Tucker, S.C. (2011) Battles that changed History - An Encyclopedia of World Conflict, ABC-CLIO, p.49
Tucker, S.C. (2011) Battles that changed History - An Encyclopedia of World Conflict, ABC-CLIO, p.55
Tucker, S.C. (2011) Battles that changed History - An Encyclopedia of World Conflict, ABC-CLIO, p.58
Tucker, S.C. (2011) Battles that changed History - An Encyclopedia of World Conflict, ABC-CLIO, p.65
Venning, T. (2011): A chronology of the Roman Empire, Continuum International Publishing Group, p.86
Venning, T. (2011): A chronology of the Roman Empire, Continuum International Publishing Group, p.89
Carthage
