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The Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. It originated in 395 AD with the final division of the Empire after the death of Theodosius I. The Empire probably divided because it was too large to be administered from one center of power. It survived the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD and continued to exist. The Empire officially ended with the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople, its capital, in 1453. However, the Eastern Roman Empire had several phases of territorial expansion and loss. After the Fall of its Western counterpart, Emperor Justinian was able to reconquer much of the territories its western counterpart had lost, including Italy, North Africa and southern Spain. Starting with the reign of Heracluius in 610 we change the denomination of the country to Byzantine Empire, because at this point it was a radically different country with a different language, a different legal system and a different territorial organization than the Roman Empire. During the Fourth Crusade (1204) Western European Kingdoms conquered Constantinople, leading to the fragmentation of the Byzantine Empire into Byzantine successor states and vassal polities of the western European conquerors. This may be considered the end of the Byzantine power in the Mediterranean Basin. The Byzantine Empire only resurfaced at the end of the the XIII century, much reduced in size. Also the traditional end of the Empire in 1453 is matter of dispute, as several successor states (like the Despotate of Morea) continued to exist for some time.
Establishment
January 395: Before Roman emperor Theodosius' death, he divided the Empire between his two sons: the eastern part went to Arcadius, the western part to Honorius. This division was, from a formal point of view, only administrative, since the Empire was still one, but it was also an important event in Roman history, as never again did an emperor reign over the West and the East at the same time.
Chronology
Interactive Chronologies with maps are available in the section Changes Navigation
After the death of Theodosius I, the last Emperor of the whole Roman Empire, the empire was divided between his two sons in a Western and Eastern part.
Were a series of conflicts between the Roman Empire and the Goths.
January 403: The Kingdom of the Ostrogoths in Moesia ceased to exist when the Ostrogoths left for Pannonia.
2.1.Gothic War (401-403)
Was a war between the invading Visigoths and the Roman Empire.
January 396: The Visgoths led by Alaric devastated Greece.
February 396: The Roman Senate paid a large subsidy to the Visigoths to prevent further devastation of Greece by Alaric's forces in 396.
2.2.Gothic War (535-554)
Was a war between the Eastern Roman Empire and the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy. The war had its roots in the ambition of the Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I to recover the provinces of the former Western Roman Empire, which the Romans had lost to invading barbarian tribes.
2.2.1.First Intervention (Gothic War)
Was the first Eastern Roman campaign in Italy under General Belisarius during the Gothic War (535-554).
September 535: Mundus conquers Dalmatia.
September 535: Belisarius lands in Sicily.
January 536: Sicily conquered by Eastern Roman Empire.
April 536: Tho Ostrogoths reconquer part of Dalmatia.
July 536: Belisarius, a Byzantine general under Emperor Justinian I, captured the city of Regium in 536. This victory was part of his campaign to reconquer the Western Roman Empire territories from the Ostrogoths during the Gothic War.
July 536: The Byzantines reconquer Dalmatia.
December 536: In 536, the Byzantine general Belisarius captured Naples from the Ostrogoths during the Gothic War. This victory was part of the Eastern Roman Empire's efforts to reclaim Italy under the rule of Emperor Justinian I.
January 537: In 536, the Byzantine general Belisarius successfully captured Rome from the Ostrogoths.
April 537: The Siege of Rome by the Ostrogoths in 537 was led by the Gothic king Vitiges against the Byzantine garrison in the city, commanded by Belisarius. The siege lasted over a year and resulted in the Ostrogoths capturing Rome and establishing it as the capital of their kingdom.
November 537: Byzantines conquer Ariminum and Ancona.
March 538: The Siege of Rome by the Ostrogoths in 538 was led by the Gothic king Vitiges against the Eastern Roman Empire, ruled by Emperor Justinian I. The siege lasted over a year and resulted in the city falling to the Ostrogoths before being recaptured by the Byzantines.
May 538: In 538, the Byzantine general Solomon led the conquest of Liguria, expanding the Eastern Roman Empire's territory up to Mediolanum (modern-day Milan). This marked a significant military achievement for the Byzantines in their efforts to reclaim lost territories in Italy.
May 538: In 538, the city of Mediolanum (modern-day Milan) was besieged and sacked by the Burgundians and the Goths, led by their respective kings, Godegisel and Vitiges. This event marked a significant blow to the Western Roman Empire, as the territory fell under the control of the Eastern Roman Empire.
June 538: Mediolanum, a city in Italy, was sieged and sacked in 538 by the Burgundians and the Goths, led by King Vitiges. The attack was part of the Gothic War between the Eastern Roman Empire and the Ostrogoths.
September 538: Byzantine conquest of Urbinum, Urbs Vetus, Auxinum and Faesulae.
September 539: Frankish raid in Liguria.
October 539: After their raid, the Franks left Liguria.
June 540: Byzantine occupation of Ravenna.
June 541: Ildibad reestablished control over Venetia and Liguria and decisively defeated the Roman general Vitalius at Treviso, but after having Uraias murdered because of a quarrel between their wives, he too was assassinated in May 541 in retribution.
January 543: After much urging by Justinian, the generals Constantian and Alexander combined their forces and advanced upon Verona. Through treachery they managed to capture a gate in the city walls, but then delayed so much by quarreling over the prospective booty that the Goths were able to recapture the gate, forcing the Byzantines to withdraw. Totila came up upon their camp near Faventia, and with 5,000 men destroyed the Roman army. Totila then marched down into Tuscany, where he besieged Florence. Three Roman generals, John, Bessas, and Cyprian marched to its relief, but in the Battle of Mucellium, their forces were defeated and dispersed.
January 547: Instead of remaining in central Italy, where his forces were outnumbered and even a single defeat might prove disastrous, Totila decided to march south, where Roman garrisons were few and weak. He bypassed Rome, and very soon, the provinces of southern Italy were forced to recognize his authority. This campaign amply illustrates the crucial points of Totila's strategy: rapid movements to take control of the countryside, leaving the Byzantines in control of isolated strongholds, mostly on the coast, which could be reduced later. When a fortified location fell, its walls were usually razed so that it would no longer be of any military value. Furthermore, Totila followed a conscious policy of treating his captives well, thus enticing them to surrender rather than resist to the end, and actively tried to win over the Italian population to his side.
January 550: The Ostrogothic reconquest of Rome in 549 was led by the Ostrogothic king Totila, who successfully recaptured the city from the Byzantine Empire during the Gothic War. This marked a significant victory for the Kingdom of the Ostrogoths in their ongoing conflict with the Byzantines.
2.2.2.Second Intervention (Gothic War)
Was the second major Eastern Roman offensive during the Gothic War (535-554).
July 561: Verona was captured by the Byzantines on July 20, 561.
January 563: The lands and cities across the River Po were still held by Franks, Alemanni and Goths, and it was not until 562 that their last strongholds, the cities of Verona and Brixia were subjugated. Nevertheless, according to Roman historian Procopius of Caesarea, the barbarian population was allowed to live peacefully in Italy under Roman sovereignty.
2.2.2.1.Battle of Taginae
Byzantine General defeated and killed Ostrogothic King Totila at the Battle of Taginae (552).
August 552: A new Italian campaign was organized under Justinian's nephew Germanus Justinus. With the death of Germanus in 551, Narses took on Totila, and at the Battle of Taginae (552) Narses defeated and killed Totila.
2.2.2.2.Battle of Mons Lactarius
Was a battle between the Ostrogothic Kingdom and the Byzanzine Empire in Campania.
November 553: After the Battle of Taginae, in which the Ostrogoth king Totila was killed, the Byzantine general Narses captured Rome and besieged Cumae. Teia, the new Ostrogothic king, gathered the remnants of the Ostrogothic army and marched to relieve the siege, but in October 552 (or early 553) Narses ambushed him at Mons Lactarius in Campania, near Mt. Vesuvius and Nuceria Alfaterna. The battle lasted two days, and Teia was killed in the fighting. Ostrogothic power in Italy was eliminated, and the remaining Ostrogoths went back north and (re)settled in south Austria. After the battle, Italy was again invaded, this time by the Franks, but they too were defeated and the peninsula was, for a time, reintegrated into the empire.
2.2.2.3.Frankish Invasion of Italy (555)
In 554, a massive army of about thirty thousand Franks and Alemanni invaded Byzantine Italy.
January 555: In 554, a massive army of about thirty thousand Franks and Alemanni invaded Italy and met the Byzantine army on the banks of the river Volturnus. The Roman legions under Narses formed up the central defenses, while several detachments of Herulian mercenaries controlled the flanks. In the Battle of the Volturnus, the Franks and Alemanni were driven back, suffering heavy losses.
February 555: In 554, a massive army of about thirty thousand Franks and Alemanni invaded Italy and met the Byzantine army on the banks of the river Volturnus. The Roman legions under Narses formed up the central defenses, while several detachments of Herulian mercenaries controlled the flanks. In the Battle of the Volturnus, the Franks and Alemanni were driven back, suffering heavy losses.
2.2.2.4.Capitulation of Campsa
After the invasion of Italy by the Eastern Roman Army and the collapse of the Ostrogothic Kingdom, seven thousand Goths held out at Campsa, near Naples until they capitulated in the spring of 555.
February 555: After being defeate din most of Italy, seven thousand Goths entrenched themselves at Campsa, near Naples.
June 555: Campsa, the last Gothic stronghold in Italy, capitulated to the Byzantines in the spring of 555.
The Western Roman Empire briefly occupied Epirus, a territory which was part of the Eastern Roman Empire at the time.
January 406: In 406, Stilicho, a general of the Western Roman Empire, allied with Alaric, a Visigothic leader, to invade Epirus in the Eastern Roman Empire.
February 406: Stilicho's plans to conquer Epirus were thwarted by barbarian invasions, forcing him to leave the region.
Were a series of conflicts that saw the Huns, an invading tribe probably from Central Asia, fighting against the Romans as well as the Germanic tribes of Europe.
4.1.Hunnic Invasion of the Eastern Roman Empire
Invasion of the Eastern Roman Empire by the Huns under king Attila.
January 448: In 447, faced with Theodosius' refusal to pay him tribute, Attila invaded the Eastern Empire again, devastating a large part of the Illyrian territories between the Black and Mediterranean seas and inflicting two serious defeats on two Roman field armies - oriental.
January 448: Theodosius was forced to evacuate a strip of territory south of the Danube five days' journey wide and to pay the Huns an annual tribute of 2,100 pounds of gold.
February 448: In 447, faced with Theodosius' refusal to pay him tribute, Attila invaded the Eastern Empire again, devastating a large part of the Illyrian territories between the Black and Mediterranean seas and inflicting two serious defeats on two Roman field armies - oriental.
4.1.1.Battle of the Utus
The Battle of Utus was fought in 447 between the army of the Eastern Roman Empire and the Huns led by Attila. The Hunnic victory brought Attila to the gates of Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire.
January 448: The Battle of Utus was fought in 447 between the army of the Eastern Roman Empire and the Huns led by Attila. The Hunnic victory brought Attila to the gates of Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire.
February 448: The Battle of Utus was fought in 447 between the army of the Eastern Roman Empire and the Huns led by Attila. The Hunnic victory brought Attila to the gates of Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire.
4.2.Germanic-Hunnic Wars
Was the conflict between the Germanic Tribes of central and eastern Europe against the Huns.
4.2.1.Battle of Nedao
The Battle of Nedao was a battle fought in Pannonia in 454 CE between the Huns and their former Germanic vassals. It was decisive Germanic victory.
January 455: The Battle of Nedao in 454 CE marked the end of the Hunnic Empire as the Germanic vassals, led by Ardaric of the Gepids, decisively defeated the Huns under Attila's sons, Ellac and Dengizich. This led to the fragmentation of the Hunnic Empire and the territory of Pannonia falling under the control of the Eastern Roman Empire.
Was an military expedition of the Vandals in the Peloponnese.
January 470: After capturing the western fleet and destroying the eastern one, the Vandals attempted to invade the Peloponnese, but were driven back to sea near the Maina peninsula with very heavy losses. Taking 500 Roman hostages on Zakynthos, they hacked them to pieces on the way back to Carthage, throwing the remains overboard.
February 470: After capturing the western fleet and destroying the eastern one, the Vandals attempted to invade the Peloponnese, but were driven back to sea near the Maina peninsula with very heavy losses. Taking 500 Roman hostages on Zakynthos, they hacked them to pieces on the way back to Carthage, throwing the remains overboard.
After the Ostrogoths left Pannonia in 473, the Gepids captured Sirmium (now Sremska Mitrovica in Serbia), a strategically important town on the road between Italy and Constantinople.
January 474: After the Ostrogoths left Pannonia in 473, the Gepids captured Sirmium, a strategically important town on the road between Italy and Constantinople.
Several important cities in Dalmatia became factually independent after the end of the Western Roman Empire.
January 481: Cattaro was one of the localities where the local Romance population survived the Barbarian invasions after the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 400s CE. Phersu Atlas Assumption: we assume that they become de facto indipendent after the conquest of Dalmatia by Odoacer in 480.
Were a series of Wars between Rome (first the Roman Republic then the Roman Empire and finally the Eastern Roman Empire) and Persia (the Parthian Empire, and then its successor, the Sasanian Empire). The wars were ended by the early Muslim conquests, which led to the fall of the Sasanian Empire and huge territorial losses for the Byzantine Empire.
January 523: In 521/522 Kavad lost control of Lazica, whose rulers switched their allegiance to the Romans.
January 542: Revolt in Lazica against the Byzantines, Gubazes II asks for help from the Persians. Persia successfully invades Lazica.
January 542: Sasanian general Cosroe digged a tunnel that allowed his army to reach under a tower of the Petra and set it on fire. With part of its defenses destroyed, the city surrendered to the Sasanians who entered triumphantly (541).
January 550: Persian protectorate over the region was established. However, the Shah of Persia's attempt to directly control the region and the missionary zeal of the Zoroastrian priests soon caused the discontent of the Christian population of Lazica. Gubazes revolted against Persian rule and asked Justinian for help, begging forgiveness for their previous quarrels which had caused Lazica to fall into Persian hands. The Lazi who crossed the river defeated the 1,000 Persian soldiers sent in advance and subsequently attacked their camp while they were still sleeping causing them to flee.
8.1.Anastasian War
Was a war between the Eastern Roman Empire and the Sasanian Empire.
September 502: In August 502, King Kavad I of the Sasanian Empire easily captured the unprepared city of Theodosiopolis, which was a key Byzantine stronghold located in modern-day Turkey. The conquest marked a significant victory for the Sasanians in their ongoing conflict with the Byzantine Empire.
July 503: Siege of the important Roman border fortress of Amida. The defenders, although receiving no reinforcements, repulsed the Persian assaults for three months, proving to be a far more difficult target than the Sasanian ruler anticipated, but they finally gave way and the city fell.
September 503: Between August and September the Romans were besieged in Edessa by Kavad I.
October 503: During the year 503, the city of Edessa was besieged by Kavad I, the Sassanid King of Persia. The siege took place between August and September, with the territory eventually falling under the control of the Eastern Roman Empire.
January 507: A peace treaty signed in November 506 by the Eastern Roman Empire and the Sasanian Empire ended the Anastasian War. With the treaty, the contenders agreed to restore the status quo ante bellum.
8.2.Iberian War
Was a war between the Eastern Roman Empire and the Sasanian Empire over the eastern Georgian kingdom of Iberia - a Sasanian client state that had defected to the Byzantines.
January 528: In 527, the Eastern Roman Empire, under the rule of Emperor Justinian I, occupied two forts in Persarmenia, Bolon and Farangion. This was part of Justinian's efforts to expand and strengthen the empire's borders in the region.
January 529: In 528 the Persians used the conquered bases in Iberia to penetrate eastern Lazica.
8.2.1.Ethernal Peace (Byzantine-Sasanian Treaty)
Was a peace treaty between the Byzantine Empire and the Sasanian Empire that ended the Iberian War.
January 533: The Sasanian Persians recognized Lazica as a dependent state of Byzantium in the Eternal Peace of 532.
January 533: Eternal peace was signed in 532 and the Romans had to return the fortresses of Bolon and Faragion to Persia.
8.3.Lazic War
Was a war fought between the Eastern Roman Empire and the Sasanian Empire for control of the ancient Georgian region of Lazica.
January 552: The Byzantine commander Bessa put down a pro-Persian revolt by the Abasgoi tribe and took Petra.
September 556: In 556, the Eastern Roman Empire's allies, led by the Byzantine general Bessas, successfully recaptured Archaeopolis from the Persians. They also defeated the Persian general Nachoragan at Phasis, securing control of the territory for the Eastern Roman Empire.
January 557: In 556, the Byzantines, led by General Martin, successfully suppressed a rebellion by the Misimiani tribe in Lazica. This victory allowed them to drive out the Persians from the region, consolidating their control over Lazica.
8.4.Byzantine-Sasanian War of 572-591
Was a war fought between the Sasanian Empire of Persia and the Eastern Roman Empire. It was triggered by pro-Byzantine revolts in areas of the Caucasus under Persian hegemony.
January 574: The Romans laid siege to Nisibis.
February 574: The abrupt dismissal of the byzantine general Marcian led to a disorderly retreat from Nisibis.
January 578: The Byzantines defeated the Persians at near Melitene and exploited their disarray by raiding deep into Caucasian Albania and Azerbaijan.
February 578: The Byzantines leave Caucasian Albania and Azerbaijan after a raid.
January 579: In 578, the Sasanian Empire, led by Adarmahan, launched a destructive military campaign in Roman Mesopotamia, causing significant damage to the region. This event marked a period of conflict between the Sasanians and the Romans in the area.
January 579: Corduene was a mountainous region located in present-day eastern Turkey and western Iran. Maurice I was the Byzantine Emperor from 582 to 602, known for his military campaigns and administrative reforms. The incorporation of Corduene into the Byzantine Empire was part of Maurice's efforts to expand and strengthen Byzantine territories.
February 579: The Persians, led by Adarmahan, launched a destructive military campaign in Roman Mesopotamia in 579. This led to significant losses for the Eastern Roman Empire in the region.
January 590: Martyropolis, a city in the Byzantine Empire, fell to the Sasanian Empire in 589 due to the betrayal of the Byzantine officer Sittas. This event was part of the ongoing conflict between the two empires during the reign of Emperor Maurice.
September 591: At the Battle of Blarathon, near Ganzak, they decisively defeated Bahram, restoring Khosrow II to power and bringing the war to an end. Khosrow not only returned Dara and Martyropolis in exchange for Maurice's assistance, but also agreed to a new partition of the Caucasus by which the Sassanids handed over to the Byzantines many cities, including Tigranokert, Manzikert, Baguana, Valarsakert, Bagaran, Vardkesavan, Yerevan, Ani, Kars, and Zarisat. The western part of the Kingdom of Iberia, including the cities of Ardahan, Lori, Dmanisi, Lomsia, Mtskheta, and Tontio became Byzantine dependencies. Also, the city of Cytaea was given to Lazica, also a Byzantine dependency.
September 591: Khosrow II gives the Byzantine Empire most of Persian Armenia.
8.5.Byzantine-Sasanian War of 602-628
Was the final and most devastating of the series of wars fought between the Roman Empire and the Sasanian Empire. The war was fought in Egypt, the Levant, Mesopotamia, the Caucasus, Anatolia, Armenia, the Aegean Sea and before the walls of Constantinople itself. After an initial phase of Sasanian conquest, the Byzantines were able to regain most of their territories. The war ended after a civil war broke out in Persia. After the war both Empires were so weakened that the Middle East and North Africa were soon conquered by the emerging Islamic Caliphate.
8.5.1.Persian dominance (Byzantine-Sasanian War of 602-628)
Were a series of Sasanian military campaigns that resulted in the conquest of large portions of the Byzantine Empire.
January 610: During the civil war in the Byzantine Empire, the Persians, led by King Khosrow II, seized the opportunity to expand their territory. In 609, they successfully conquered the frontier towns of Mardin and Amida in Upper Mesopotamia, further strengthening their control in the region.
Were a series of wars initiated by Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I to reconquer former territories of the Western Roman Empire. Although Justinian was not able to conquer back all these territories, he was succesful in conquering most of them.
9.1.Vandalic War
Was a war by Eastern Roman Emperor Juistinian I against the Vandalic Kingdom, which was conquered by the Romans.
September 533: Syllectum was captured by a Roman detachment under Boriades.
September 533: The Battle of Ad Decimum against the Vandals ended in a crushing Roman victory.
September 533: On the morning of September 15th, Belisarius drew up the army for battle before the city walls, but as no enemy appeared, he led his army into the city, after again exhorting his troops to show discipline. .
October 533: The Romans reached Cape Caputvada on the eastern shore of modern Tunisia.
October 533: The Romans advanced through Thapsus, Leptis Parva and Hadrumetum to Grasse.
December 533: Belisarius was a Byzantine general who led the Eastern Roman Empire's campaign to reconquer the Vandal Kingdom in North Africa. Hippo Regius was a city where the Vandals sought refuge but eventually surrendered to Belisarius in 533.
April 534: Belisarius was a Byzantine general under Emperor Justinian I. In 534, he sent armies to occupy various vandal regions outside Africa, including Sardinia, Corsica, Caesarea, Septem, Gadira, Balearic islands, and Tropolitania. This marked a significant expansion of the Eastern Roman Empire's territory.
April 534: Gelimer surrendered to the Eastern Roman Empire, led by General Belisarius, in March 534 after negotiations that ensured his safety.
9.1.1.Surrender of Gelimer
Was the surrender of the king of the Vandals Gelimer to the Eastern Roman invading troops.
January 535: Gelimer continued to resist on Mount Pappua, besieged by Fara, a Herulian general in the service of the Byzantines, to whom he surrendered in 534. With Gelimer's capture, the Kingdom of the Vandals dissolved.
9.2.Byzantine reconquest of Spania
Was a Byzantine military campaign against the Kingdom of the Visigoths to reconquer the Iberian Peninsula. The Byzantine were able to slowly occupy the southern coast of the Peninsula.
August 552: Who, and when, exactly began negotiations with the Byzantines for assistance is debated by historians, as the primary sources are divided. What is known is that Justinian was summoned by one of the two contenders for the throne and prepared an army. Liberio's forces arrived at the mouths of the Guadalete or possibly Malaga.
January 555: After two years of war the Romans were able to wrestle the extreme southern coast of Spain from the Visigoths.
November 555: The Byzantines occupied many coastal cities in Baetica.
9.3.Byzantine War gainst the Moors
Following the Eastern Roman re-conquest of the Vandal Kingdom, the local governors began to experience problems with the local Berber tribes. The province of Byzacena was invaded and the local garrison, including the commanders Gainas and Rufinus, was defeated. .
January 540: The province of Byzacena was invaded by Berber tribes. The local garrison, including the commanders Gainas and Rufinus, was defeated.
February 540: The Romans reconquered the province of Byzacena.
9.4.Bzyantine conquest of Septem
The Byzantines conquered Septem (the modern-day city of Ceuta).
January 543: The city of Ceuta fell into Byzantine hands in 542.
The Vandals ceded the city of Ceuta to the Visigoths.
January 535: Theudis, who was the King of the Visigoths from 531 to 548, obtained the city of Ceuta from the Vandals.
By 562 the Avars controlled the lower Danube basin and the steppes north of the Black Sea.
January 563: The Avars conquered and incorporated various nomadic tribes - Kutrigurs and Sabirs - and defeated the Antes. By 562 the Avars controlled the lower Danube basin and the steppes north of the Black Sea.
Were the Visigothic campaigns in southern Spain that slowly led to the expulsion of the Byzantines from the region.
January 566: Conquests of Visigothic King Atanagild.
January 573: Medina-Sidonia was a key city in the region of Andalusia, Spain. Leovigildo was the Visigothic King of Hispania and ruled from 568 to 586. The reconquest of Asidona in 572 marked a significant victory for the Kingdom of the Visigoths in their efforts to expand their territory in the Iberian Peninsula.
January 587: Conquests of Visigothic King Leovigild.
January 601: By the year 600 the extent of Spania had diminished to little more than the coastal area between Málaga and Cartagena.
12.1.Visigothic reconquest of Gades
Visigothic King Liuvigild conquered the city of Gades from the Byzantines.
January 572: Liuivigild succeeded in taking Medina-Sidonia.
12.2.Reconquest of Cordoba
Visigothic King Liuvigild conquered the city of Cordoba from the Byzantines.
January 573: In 572, King Leovigild of the Visigoths conquered Cordoba.
Was a war between the Kingdom of the Gepids on one side and the Lombards and the Avar Khaganate on the other side.
13.1.Collapse of the Gepid Kingdom
The Gepids were defeated by the Avars and Lombards in 567 and their kingdom destroyed.
January 568: Sirmium and the Dalmatian coast reverted to the Byzantines.
Was a war initiated by the invasion of Byzantine North Africa by Mauro-Roman king Garmul which ended with the collapse of the Mauro-Roman kingdom.
14.1.Byzantine Africa invaded by Garmul
Were military raids waged by Garmul, king of the Mauro-Roman Kingdom, against Byzantine North Africa.
January 572: Garmul was a Berber king of the Mauro-Roman Kingdom in North Africa. He defeated a Byzantine army in 571 and conducted raids into Byzantine territory. This event marked a significant victory for the Mauro-Roman Kingdom over the Byzantine Empire.
February 572: Garmul was a Berber king of the Mauro-Roman Kingdom in North Africa. In 572, the territory was taken over by the Eastern Roman Empire after Garmul had previously defeated a Byzantine army in 571 and launched raids into Byzantine territory.
14.2.Defeat of Garmul
The Byzantines invaded the Mauro-Roman kingdom, which collapsed.
January 579: With the defeat of Garmul, the Mauro-Roman Kingdom collapsed. The Eastern Roman Empire re-incorporated some of the territory of the Kingdom, notably the coastal corridor of the old provinces of Mauretania Tingitania and Mauretania Caesariensis.
Were the military campaigns of Visigothic King Liuvigild.
15.1.Liuvigild conquers Orospeda
Liuvgild, king of the Visigoths, conquers the region of Orospeda.
January 578: Liuvgild, king of the Visigoths, conquered the region of Orospeda.
Were a series of conflicts between the Byzantine Empire and the Avar Khaganate.
16.1.Avarian conquest of Sirmio
The Avars conquer Sirmio from the Byzantines.
January 581: In 580, the Avars, a nomadic people from Central Asia, conquered Sirmio, a town located in present-day Serbia. The Avars were led by their Khagan, Bayan I, who expanded their territory into the Balkans during this time.
16.2.Maurice's Balkan campaigns
Were a series of military expeditions conducted by Roman Emperor Maurice in an attempt to defend the Balkan provinces of the Roman Empire from the Avars and the South Slavs.
January 584: Avar raid into the Balkan Peninsula and the Peloponnese.
February 584: End of an Avar raid into the Balkan Peninsula and the Peloponnese.
January 585: The following year, the Avars conquered Singidunum (present-day Belgrade) and Viminacium.
January 586: Avar raid in Greece.
February 586: At Adrianople in 584/585, Byzantine Emperor Maurice forced the Slavs to retreat from Thrace and then pounce on defenseless Greece.
January 587: In 587, the Balkan Peninsula, Northern Greece, faced attacks from the Avar invaders. They successfully destroyed several cities including Ratiaria, Oescus, Durostorum, Marcianopolis, and Bononia. Thessaloniki was also besieged during this time, causing widespread destruction and chaos in the region.
February 587: End of the Avar raid in the Balkan Peninsula.
January 588: In 587, the Byzantine Empire's deployment in Thrace and Moesia, led by Emperor Maurice, was a failure. This allowed the Avars, a nomadic group from the Eurasian steppes, to advance towards the Sea of Marmara, threatening Byzantine territories in the region.
February 588: In 588, the Eastern Roman Empire deployed troops in Thrace and Moesia, but the operation was a failure. This allowed the Avars, a nomadic people from Central Asia, to advance towards the Sea of Marmara, posing a threat to the empire's territories in the region.
January 593: In 592 Roman troops recaptured Singidunum, which had been occupied again by the Avars.
June 593: Roman Emperor Maurice stopped the attacks of the Slavs on Moesia and defeated them several times before pursuing them across the Danube into today's Wallachia, where he managed to defeat Slavs despite the wooded and swampy area.
July 593: Roman Emperor Maurice stopped the attacks of the Slavs on Moesia and defeated them several times before pursuing them across the Danube into today's Wallachia, where he managed to defeat Slavs despite the wooded and swampy area.
January 594: Winter 593/594: Favored by the retreat of the Roman troops to the winter quarters in Odessos (today's Varna), the Slavs crossed the Danube again in the winter around the turn of the year 593/594, again plundering through Moesia and Macedonia.
February 594: Winter 593/594: Favored by the retreat of the Roman troops to the winter quarters in Odessos (today's Varna), the Slavs crossed the Danube again in the winter around the turn of the year 593/594, again plundering through Moesia and Macedonia.
January 596: Priskos was a Byzantine diplomat and historian who served as an envoy to the Avar Khaganate. The Avars, a nomadic people, decided to invade Dalmatia instead of engaging in direct conflict with Priskos.
February 596: Priskos was a Byzantine general and diplomat who was sent to negotiate with the Avars. The Avars, a nomadic people from Central Asia, decided to change their strategy and invaded Dalmatia instead of engaging in direct conflict with Priskos and the Eastern Roman Empire in 596.
December 597: The Avar Khaganate, led by Khagan Bayan I, launched a winter attack in 597-598 on the territories of Thrace and Moesia. The Avars were a nomadic people of Central Asian origin who frequently raided and plundered settlements in Eastern Europe during this time period.
January 598: The Avar winter attack of 597-598 in Thrace and Moesia was a military campaign by the Avar Khanate against the Eastern Roman Empire. The Avars, led by their Khan Bayan I, launched a devastating invasion during the harsh winter months, causing widespread destruction and plundering of the region.
September 599: In the summer of 599, the Romans broke the peace treaty. Priscus and Komentiolus took their armies downstream to nearby Viminacium and crossed the Danube from there. On the north bank they defeated the Avars for the first time in pitched battle on their own land.
October 599: In the summer of 599, the Romans broke the peace treaty. Priscus and Komentiolus took their armies downstream to nearby Viminacium and crossed the Danube from there. On the north bank they defeated the Avars for the first time in pitched battle on their own land.
January 603: In 602, the Slavs in Wallachia were decisively defeated by the Eastern Roman Empire under the leadership of Emperor Maurice.
February 603: The Roman army leaves Wallachia after decisively defeating the Slavs.
16.3.Avar annexation of Singidunum and Viminacium
The Avars conquered Sirmio Singidunum and Viminacium form the Byzantines.
January 585: When the Byzantines refused to increase the stipend amount as requested by Bayan's son and successor Bayan II (from 584), the Avars proceeded to capture Singidunum and Viminacium.
The Byzantines reconquered Classis, the harbour of Ravenna, from the Lombards.
January 589: In 579, he sacked Classis, the harbour of Ravenna. Between 584 and 588, Classis was retaken by Droctulf.
Were the conquests in northern and central Italy of Lombard king Agilulf.
January 589: Expansion of the Lombard Kingdom by 588.
Was the invasion of the italian Peninsula, recently reconquered by the Eastern Romans from the Ostrogoths, by the Germanic people of the Lombards.
January 591: In 590 a Byzantine incursion, strengthened by new armies sent by the Empire and led by the patrician Gallicino, brought the cities of Modena and Mantua under the control of the Exarchate of Italy while simultaneously obtaining the submission of the dukes of Parma, Reggio and Piacenza.
January 594: The Lombards conquer Modena.
January 594: The Lombards conquer Mantova.
January 604: In 603 Agilulf managed to go over to the counterattack and definitively reconquer Parma.
19.1.Lombard conquests under king Alboin
Lombard conquests under king Alboin.
June 572: The Lombard conquests at the death of Alboin.
19.1.1.Lombards enter Italy
In 568 AD the Lombards entered Italy from the Isonzo area.
May 568: Having the dangerous Avars as neighbours, Lombard king Alboin decided to launch himself towards the plains of Italy, just devastated by the bloody Gothic war. In 568 the Lombards invaded Italy by crossing the Isonzo.
19.1.2.Lombard conquest of Aquileia, Vicenza and Verona
Lombard conquest of Aquileia, Vicenza and Verona.
September 569: Aquileia, Vicenza and Verona fell to the Langobards.
19.1.3.Lombard conquest of Lucca and Milan
Lombard conquest of Lucca and Milan.
October 569: In September 569, Milan and Lucca opened their doors to the invading Lombards, led by King Alboin. The Lombards were a Germanic tribe who established the Kingdom of the Lombards in Italy after the fall of the Western Roman Empire.
19.1.4.Lombard conquest of Pavia
Lombard conquest of Pavia.
June 572: In 572, after three years of siege, Pavia also fell to the Kingdom of the Lombards, led by King Alboin.
19.2.Clefi´s conquest of Tuscia
Lombard conquest of Tuscany.
February 574: The successor of Alboin Clefi continues the infiltration of Italy up to his death (574) conquering Tuscia.
19.3.Rule of the Dukes
Was an interregnum in the Lombard Kingdom of Italy during which Italy was ruled by the Lombard dukes of the old Roman provinces and urban centres.
19.3.1.Conquest of Classis
Lombard conquest of Classis.
January 580: Sack of Classis.
January 580: In 579, he sacked Classis, the harbour of Ravenna. Between 584 and 588, Classis was retaken by Droctulf.
19.3.2.Siege of Rome (580)
Lombard siege of Rome.
January 580: The Liber Pontificalis narrates that in those years many fortresses were forced to surrender to the Lombards due to hunger and that Rome itself was besieged by them in 579. In 579 Rome was also besieged, but the siege failed.
February 580: The Liber Pontificalis narrates that in those years many fortresses were forced to surrender to the Lombards due to hunger and that Rome itself was besieged by them in 579. In 579 Rome was also besieged, but the siege failed.
19.3.3.Siege of Naples (582)
Lombard siege of Naples.
January 582: Zotto, also known as Zotto I, was the Duke of Benevento who attempted to conquer Naples in 581 but was unsuccessful and had to abandon the siege. This event marked a failed military campaign by the Duchy of Benevento to expand its territory.
February 582: During the siege of Naples in 582, the Lombard king Zotto attempted to conquer the city but was ultimately unsuccessful. As a result, Naples remained under the control of the Eastern Roman Empire.
19.4.Lombard conquest of Parma and Piacenza
Lombard king Agilulf conquered Parma and Piacenza from the Byzantines.
The Byzantine Hexarc Romanus reconquers Sutri, Bomarzo, Orte, Todi, Amelia, Perugia and Luceoli from the Lombards.
January 593: The byzantine Hexarc Romanus reconquers Sutri, Bomarzo, Orte, Todi, Amelia, Perugia, Luceoli.
Was the siege of Byzantine-controlled Naples by the Lombard Duke of Spoleto.
January 593: Siege of Naples by Lombards from Benevento together with Ariulfo Duke of Spoleto.
February 593: The tribune Costantium, sent to Naples by Pope Gregory the Great, managed to repel the besiegers from Naples.
Capua was conquered by the Lombards.
January 595: In 594, the city of Capua fell into the hands of the Lombards, specifically the Duchy of Benevento, during the Lombard invasion of Italy. The Lombards were a Germanic tribe that ruled much of Italy during the Early Middle Ages.
Venafro was conquered by the Lombards.
January 596: The Longobard conquest of Venafro in 595 resulted in the territory coming under the control of the Duchy of Benevento. This event marked the end of the ability to elect a bishop in Venafro, as the Longobards imposed their own governance and control over the region.
Were the military campaigns of Arechi I, the Lombard duke of Beveneto, that led to the conquest of Nola and Crotone.
January 597: Fall of Nola to Lombard forces from the Duchy of Benevento.
January 600: Arechi I of Benvento conquers Atella.
January 601: A Byzantine fleet conquered back Crotone.
January 602: Lombard forces of the Duchy of Benevento conquer Nuceria Alfaterna.
24.1.Lombard conquest of Crotone
The Lombard duke of Beveneto conquered Crotone.
January 597: Fall of Nola and threat against Amalfi (the Longobards made many prisoners, who were ransomed by the pope) and also the conquest of Crotone, however too exposed to the attacks of the Byzantine fleet and soon lost again.
The Byzantine Exarch of Ravenna Callinicus conquered Parma from the Lombards.
January 603: In 602, the Byzantines, led by the Emperor Maurice, successfully reconquered the city of Parma from the Lombards. This victory was part of the ongoing conflict between the Eastern Roman Empire and the Lombard Kingdom for control of Italy.
January 401: Nobatia, together with the two other Nubian kingdoms, Makuria and Alodia, succeeded the kingdom of Kush.
January 401: The Salīḥids were the dominant Arab foederati of the Byzantine Empire in the 5th century. They succeeded the Tanukhids, who were dominant in the 4th century.
January 563: The Kingdom of Lazica, however, survived for over 20 more years, until 562, when it was absorbed into the Byzantine Empire.
January 571: Even after the end of the Period of the Dukes and the restoration of a central royal authority with Autari (584), the duchy of Spoleto, ruled by Faroaldo I until 591, remained essentially independent from the Lombard Kingdom.
January 577: The foundation of the Duchy of Benevento dates back to 576 and the Lombards would therefore have arrived only later, around 590. What is certain is that the first duke was Zottone.
January 579: At the end of the VI Century Mauretania Caesariensis (the coast of modern-day Algeria) fragmented into several Roman-Berber kingdoms.
January 579: Establishment of the Kingdom of Cabaon.
October 610: With the reign of Emperor Heraclius, it is generally assumed that the Eastern Roman Empire became the Byzantine Empire. We consider the first Byzantine emperor to all intents and purposes Heraclius (610-641), since it is with him that (1) the process of definitive Hellenization of the state apparatus takes place, (2) the new territorial division into themata (which will remain always characteristic of the Byzantines) takes place, (3) the juridical reform which puts a tombstone on ancient Roman law, which in any case is partially preserved, takes place, (4) the first wars in a truly medieval sense, i.e. characterized by a very clear crusading spirit take place.
Disestablishment
January 610: During the civil war in the Byzantine Empire, the Persians, led by King Khosrow II, seized the opportunity to expand their territory. In 609, they successfully conquered the frontier towns of Mardin and Amida in Upper Mesopotamia, further strengthening their control in the region.
October 610: With the reign of Emperor Heraclius, it is generally assumed that the Eastern Roman Empire became the Byzantine Empire. We consider the first Byzantine emperor to all intents and purposes Heraclius (610-641), since it is with him that (1) the process of definitive Hellenization of the state apparatus takes place, (2) the new territorial division into themata (which will remain always characteristic of the Byzantines) takes place, (3) the juridical reform which puts a tombstone on ancient Roman law, which in any case is partially preserved, takes place, (4) the first wars in a truly medieval sense, i.e. characterized by a very clear crusading spirit take place.
Selected Sources
Jackson, T.G. (1887): Dalmatia : the Quarnero and Istria with Cettigne in Montenegro and the Island of Grado, Robarts - University of Toronto, pp. 14-16
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Eastern Roman Empire
