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Name: persia (antiquity)

Type: Cluster

Start: 849 BC

End: 670 AD

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persia (antiquity)

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The cluster includes all the forms of Persia from the Median Empire and Achaemenid Empire to the Sasanian Empire which eventually collapsed to the Islamic conquest.

The cluster includes the following incarnations of the same nation:

Seleucid Kingdom (Roman Protectorate)

Sasanian Empire

Establishment

January 849 BC: Drangiana was subdued by another Iranian people, the Medes.

Chronology

Interactive Chronologies with maps are available in the section Changes Navigation

1. Median-Assyrian War of Phraortes

Was a war between the Neo-Assyrian Empire and the Median Kingdom, an Assyrian vassal that started a military campaign of expansion under King Pharaortes.

1.1.Conquest of Parthia and Persia

Median King Pharaortes subjugated the Persians and Parthians while still a vassal of the Assyrian kings Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal, and began to conquer other nations of Ancient Iran.

January 659 BC: Pharaortes subjugated the Persians and Parthians while still a vassal of the Assyrian kings Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal, and began to conquer other nations of Ancient Iran.

1.2.Defeat of Media

Median King Pharaortes started a war with Assyria but was defeated and killed by Ashurbanipal, the king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.

January 652 BC: Phraortes started wars against Assyria, but was defeated and killed by Ashurbanipal, the king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. According to Herodotus, Phraortes died in the attack on Assyria, losing the decisive battle against the Scythians, who were allied with the Ayysrians. After this defeat, Medien is said to have fallen under Scythian rule for 28 years.

2. Campaigns of Cyaxares

Military campaign of Median king Cyaxares.

January 624 BC: Cyaxares II, the king of the Median Empire, ended the Scythian rule in Western and Eastern Iran in -625. This marked the restoration of Median control over the territory, consolidating their power in the region.

January 613 BC: In the year 614 B.C. the Medes smashed the kingdom of Assyria in an alliance with Babylonia and destroyed the city of Assur, 612 B.C. the ancient Assyrian capital of Nineveh also fell.

January 611 BC: Elam, already largely destroyed and subjugated by Assyria, thus became easy prey for the Median dominated Iranian peoples, and was incorporated into the Median Empire.

January 611 BC: It is unclear when Manna arose in the Meded Empire. Assyria fellin - 610, Urartu (Tušpa) around -590.

January 599 BC: Parsua was an ancient tribal kingdom/chiefdom located between Zamua (formerly: Lullubi) and Ellipi. In -600, the territory of Parsua was absorbed into the expanding Median Empire, led by King Cyaxares.

2.1.Medo-Babylonian conquest of the Assyrian Empire

Was a war fought between Media and Babylon against the Neo-Assyrian Empire that led to the fall of the latter.

December 615 BC: In October or November 615 BC, the Medes, led by King Cyaxares, invaded Assyria and conquered the region around the city of Arrapha. This marked a significant victory for the Median Empire in their expansion efforts in the region.

January 614 BC: In the year 614 BC the Median Empire defeated Sinsharishkun at the Battle of Tarbisu.

2.1.1.Fall of Assur

The Fall of Assur occurred when the capital of the Neo-Assyrian Empire fell to Median led forces.

January 613 BC: The Fall of Assur in -614 marked the end of the Neo-Assyrian Empire as the city was conquered by the Median Empire led by King Cyaxares. Assur was a significant city in the Assyrian Empire, serving as its first capital and a major cultural and religious center.

3. Median-Lydian war

Was a war between the ancient Kingdom of Lydia and the Confederation of the Medes.

January 584 BC: During the main battle on May 28, 585 BC there was a solar eclipse. In superstitious fear, the warriors of both sides stopped the battle, and the kings hastened to make peace, and the Galis River was recognized as the border of both kingdoms. As a result, Media annexed Cappadocia .

4. Wars of Cyrus the Great

Were a series of expansionistic military campaigns by the first Achaemenid ruler Cyrus the Great.

January 549 BC: Stameneia was captured by the Persians in 550 BC.

January 549 BC: Carmania was conquered by Cyrus the Great, founder of the Achaemenid Empire, in the 6th century BC.

January 549 BC: Sesamos was captured by the Persians in 550 BC.

January 549 BC: Odeinios was captured by the Persians in 550 BC.

January 549 BC: Tieion was captured by the Persians in 550 BC.

January 549 BC: Themiskyra was captured by the Persians in 550 BC.

January 549 BC: By the mid-6th century BC, Caucasian Albania was incorporated in the Achaemenid empire.

January 549 BC: Karambis was captured by the Persians in 550 BC.

January 549 BC: Iasonia was captured by the Persians in 550 BC.

January 549 BC: Herakleia (Pontic Coast of Asia Minor) was captured by the Persians in 550 BC.

January 549 BC: Karoussa was captured by the Persians in 550 BC.

January 549 BC: Amisos was captured by the Persians in 550 BC.

January 549 BC: Kinolis was captured by the Persians in 550 BC.

January 549 BC: Trapezous (Pontic Coast of Asia Minor) was captured by the Persians in 550 BC.

January 549 BC: The city of Colchis was invaded by Scythians and Cimmerians roughly between 720 and 730 BC. and the kingdom disintegrated into various statelets. Around the middle of the 6th century B.C. these fell under Achaemenid rule.

January 549 BC: Lykastos was captured by the Persians in 550 BC.

January 549 BC: Kytoros was captured by the Persians in 550 BC.

January 549 BC: Kromna was captured by the Persians in 550 BC.

January 549 BC: Kotyora was captured by the Persians in 550 BC.

January 549 BC: Koloussa was captured by the Persians in 550 BC.

January 548 BC: Kelenderis was conquered by Persia in 549.

January 548 BC: Issos was conquered by Persia in 549.

January 548 BC: Mallos was conquered by Persia in 549.

January 548 BC: Holmoi was conquered by Persia in 549.

January 548 BC: Aphrodisias was conquered by Persia in 549.

January 548 BC: Achaemenids could manage to defeat Lydians, thus Appuašu had to recognize the authority of the Persians in 549BC to keep the local administration with the Cilicians. Cilicia became an autonomous satrapy under the reign of Cyrus II.

January 548 BC: Soloi (Kilikia) was conquered by Persia in 549.

January 548 BC: Nagidos was conquered by Persia in 549.

January 545 BC: Achaemenid Empire conquests in Asia Minor. Cyrus the Great conquers the Ionian Greeks.

January 545 BC: After the defeat of neighboring Lydia by the Persians in 546 BC Rhodes came under the influence of the Persian Empire of the Achaemenids.

January 544 BC: Persia ruled Cyprus from 545 BC.

October 539 BC: Cyrus the Great, king and founder of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, took Babylon.

January 538 BC: Margiana, located in present-day Turkmenistan, was conquered by the Persian king Cyrus the Great. The territory became part of the Achaemenid Empire's satrapy of Bactria between 545 and 539 BC.

January 538 BC: The fall of the kingdom of Judah does not seem to have affected the Ammonites at first. However, they too are later lost in the mixture of peoples of the Persian empire.

4.1.Cyrus' Conquest of the Lydian Empire

Was a war between the Achaemenid and the Lydian Empires that ended with the demise of the latter.

December 547 BC: Battle of Pteria: in 547 BC, the Persian forces of Cyrus the Great fought a drawn battle with the invading Lydian forces of Croesus, forcing Croesus to withdraw back west into his own kingdom.

January 546 BC: The Battle of Thymbra was the decisive battle in the war between Croesus of the Lydian Kingdom and Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid Empire. The battle was won by the Persians led by Cyrus the Great. Lydia became the Persian satrapy Sparda.

January 545 BC: After Cyrus the Great defeated King Croesus of Lydia in -546, Pamphylia, a region in modern-day Turkey, came under the control of the Achaemenid Empire. This marked the expansion of Persian influence in the region.

January 545 BC: After Cyrus the Great defeated King Croesus of Lydia in -546, the region of Pamphylia, including the city of Perge, came under the control of the Achaemenid Empire. This marked the expansion of Persian influence in the region.

January 545 BC: After Cyrus the Great defeated King Croesus of Lydia in -546, the region of Pamphylia, including the city of Idyros, came under the control of the Achaemenid Empire. This marked the expansion of Persian influence in the region.

January 545 BC: After Cyrus the Great defeated King Croesus of Lydia in -546, the region of Pamphylia, including the city of Aspendos, came under the control of the Achaemenid Empire. This marked the expansion of Persian influence in the region.

4.2.Conquest of Sogdia

Was an Achaemenid military campaign in Sogdia.

January 545 BC: Herodotus, a Greek historian, noted that Cyrus the Great, the founder of the Achaemenid Empire, conquered and incorporated Sogdia into his empire during his military campaigns from 546-539 BC. Sogdia was a region located in Central Asia.

4.3.Cyrus' Conquest of Babylonia

Was a military campaign of the Achaemenid ruler Cyrus the Great that resulted in the conquest of the Neo-Babylonian Empire.

October 539 BC: The Battle of Opis took place in -539 between Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid Empire and the Babylonian army. The decisive victory for Cyrus led to the fall of Babylon and the incorporation of the territory into the Achaemenid Empire.

October 539 BC: Sippar was seized by the Achaemenids without a battle.

October 539 BC: On October 12 (proleptic Gregorian calendar), Gubaru's troops entered Babylon, again without any resistance from the Babylonian armies, and detained Nabonidus.

4.4.Achaemenid invasion of the Indus Valley

Were a series of military campaigns by the Achaemenid rulers in the Indus valley.

January 538 BC: Cyrus the Great expanded the Achaemenid Empire as far as to the banks of the Indus river and organized the conquered territories under the Satrapy of Gandara.

January 517 BC: The Gandhara Kingdom, ruled by King Ambhi, was conquered by the Achaemenid Empire under the leadership of King Darius I in 518 BC. This marked the incorporation of Gandhara into the vast Persian Empire.

January 515 BC: The Achaemenids under Darius penetrated to the region in 516 BC and annexed other parts of modern-day Punjab, Pakistan west to the Indus river and Sindh.

January 515 BC: The Achaemenids under Darius penetrated to the region in 516 BC and annexed other parts of modern-day Punjab, Pakistan west to the Indus river and Sindh. The upper Indus region, comprising Gandhara and Kamboja, formed the 7th, Gandhara satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire.

January 509 BC: Conquests of Achaemenid ruler Darius I in India (Gandara and Sattagydia), circa 510 BC.

5. Persian Revolt

A revolt led by the first Achaemenid ruler Cyrus the Great in which the province of ancient Persis, which had been under Median rule, declared its independence and fought a successful revolution, separating from the Median Empire.

January 549 BC: In 553 BC the Median nobility allied themselves with the Persians, which led to the end of the rule of the Medes in 550 BC. The Medes Confederation was subdued by Cyrus II.

January 549 BC: Cyrus the Great declared the independence of the province of ancient Persis from the Median Empire and established the Achaemenid Empire.

6. Independence of the Qedarites from Babylon

After the collapse of the Babylonian Empire Tyam became an independent kingdom.

January 538 BC: The last Babylonian king, Nabonidus (ruled c. 556-539 BC), conquered Tayma and for ten years of his reign retired there to worship and search for prophecies.

7. Conquests of Cambyses II

Conquests by Achaemenid ruler Cambyses II.

January 523 BC: Following the conquest of Egypt by Cambyses, the Libyans and the Greeks of Cyrene and Barca in Libya surrendered to him. This event took place in -524, with Barca becoming part of the Achaemenid Empire.

January 523 BC: Cambyses improved the Empire's strategic position in Africa by conquering the Kingdom of Meroë and taking strategic positions in the western oases.

January 523 BC: Following the conquest of Egypt by Cambyses, the Libyans and Greeks of Cyrene and Barca surrendered to the Achaemenid Empire in -524. This marked the expansion of Achaemenid control over the region.

January 521 BC: Samos, having lost its charismatic leader, was easily conquered by the Persians in 522 BC.

7.1.Battle of Pelusium

Egypt was lost to the Persians during the battle of Pelusium in 525 BC.

January 524 BC: Egypt was finally lost to the Persians during the battle of Pelusium in 525 BC.

8. Conquests of Darius I

Conquests by Achaemenid ruler Darius I.

January 513 BC: Abydos was occupied by the Persian Empire in 514 BC.

January 512 BC: The city of Byzantion was taken by the Persian Empire at the time of the Scythian campaign (513 BC) of King Darius I.

January 512 BC: Darius the Great, the ruler of the Achaemenid Empire from 521-486 BC, led military operations in 513 BC that resulted in the subjugation of the Paeonians in their territory of Paeonia.

January 512 BC: Darius the Great invaded European Scythia in 513 BC.

January 512 BC: Around 513 BC, an army of the mighty Persian dynasty of the Achaemenids crossed the Bosphorus. King Darius I' goal was a punitive expedition against the Scythians at the northern shores of the Black Sea. Most eastern Thracian tribes submitted peacefully, except of the Getai, who were defeated.

January 511 BC: Astyra was occupied by the Achaemenid Empire during the military campaigns of Darius I in Asia Minor.

January 511 BC: Astyra Troika was occupied by the Achaemenid Empire during the military campaigns of Darius I in Asia Minor.

January 511 BC: Gargara was occupied by the Achaemenid Empire during the military campaigns of Darius I in Asia Minor.

January 511 BC: Gentinos was occupied by the Achaemenid Empire during the military campaigns of Darius I in Asia Minor.

January 511 BC: Gergis was occupied by the Achaemenid Empire during the military campaigns of Darius I in Asia Minor.

January 511 BC: Ilion was occupied by the Achaemenid Empire during the military campaigns of Darius I in Asia Minor.

January 511 BC: Kebren was occupied by the Achaemenid Empire during the military campaigns of Darius I in Asia Minor.

January 511 BC: Lamponeia was occupied by the Achaemenid Empire during the military campaigns of Darius I in Asia Minor.

January 511 BC: Palaiperkote was occupied by the Achaemenid Empire during the military campaigns of Darius I in Asia Minor.

January 511 BC: Perkote was occupied by the Achaemenid Empire during the military campaigns of Darius I in Asia Minor.

January 511 BC: Sigeion was occupied by the Achaemenid Empire during the military campaigns of Darius I in Asia Minor.

January 511 BC: Kokylion was occupied by the Achaemenid Empire during the military campaigns of Darius I in Asia Minor.

January 511 BC: Birytis was occupied by the Achaemenid Empire during the military campaigns of Darius I in Asia Minor.

January 511 BC: In 512 BC Otanes, the Persian satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia, captured the city of Antandros while subduing north-west Asia Minor.

January 511 BC: Kolonai (Troas) was occupied by the Achaemenid Empire during the military campaigns of Darius I in Asia Minor.

January 511 BC: Larisa (Troas) was occupied by the Achaemenid Empire during the military campaigns of Darius I in Asia Minor.

January 511 BC: Rhoiteion was occupied by the Achaemenid Empire during the military campaigns of Darius I in Asia Minor.

January 511 BC: Arisbe was occupied by the Achaemenid Empire during the military campaigns of Darius I in Asia Minor.

January 511 BC: Assos was occupied by the Achaemenid Empire during the military campaigns of Darius I in Asia Minor.

January 511 BC: Around 512 BC Chios was conquered by the expansion of the Persian Empire.

January 511 BC: Skepsis was occupied by the Achaemenid Empire during the military campaigns of Darius I in Asia Minor.

January 511 BC: Neandreia was occupied by the Achaemenid Empire during the military campaigns of Darius I in Asia Minor.

January 511 BC: Ophryneion was occupied by the Achaemenid Empire during the military campaigns of Darius I in Asia Minor.

January 511 BC: Dardanos was occupied by the Achaemenid Empire during the military campaigns of Darius I in Asia Minor.

January 510 BC: Lemnos was conquered by Otanes, a general of Darius Hystaspis.

January 510 BC: Persian conquest of Thracia.

January 510 BC: In 511 or 512 BC the island of Imbros was captured by the Persian general Otanes.

January 507 BC: The Persians occupied Samothrace in 508 BC.

January 499 BC: By the 5th century BC the Kings of Persia were either ruling over or had subordinated territories encompassing not just all of the Persian Plateau and all of the territories formerly held by the Assyrian Empire (Mesopotamia, the Levant, Cyprus and Egypt), but beyond this all of Anatolia and Armenia, as well as the Southern Caucasus and parts of the North Caucasus, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, all of Bulgaria, Paeonia, Thrace and Macedonia to the north and west, most of the Black Sea coastal regions, parts of Central Asia as far as the Aral Sea, the Oxus and Jaxartes to the north and north-east, the Hindu Kush and the western Indus basin (corresponding to modern Afghanistan and Pakistan) to the far east, parts of northern Arabia to the south, and parts of northern Libya to the south-west, and parts of Oman, China, and the UAE.

January 499 BC: Northern border of the 5th Satrapy of the Persian Empire at the time of Herodotus.

January 498 BC: The island of Nisyros was captured by the Persians.

8.1.Scythian campaign of Darius I

The Scythian campaign of Darius I was a military expedition into parts of European Scythia by Darius I, the king of the Achaemenid Empire, in 513 BC.

January 512 BC: The Scythian campaign of Darius I was a military expedition into parts of European Scythia by Darius I, the king of the Achaemenid Empire, in 513 BC.

9. Greco-Persian Wars

Were a series of conflicts between the Achaemenid Empire and Greek city-states.

9.1.Ionian Revolt

Were a series of revolts of Greek city-states of Asia Minor against Achaemenid rule.

January 498 BC: The island of Astypalaia was captured by the Persians.

January 498 BC: The island of Brykous was captured by the Persians.

January 498 BC: Aristagoras brought all of Hellenic Asia Minor into revolt.

January 498 BC: The island of Kasos was captured by the Persians.

January 498 BC: The island of Chalke was captured by the Persians.

January 498 BC: In a desperate attempt to save himself, as he had failed in the conquest to Naxos for the Achaemenids, Aristagoras chose to incite his own subjects, the Milesians, to revolt against their Persian masters, thereby beginning the Ionian Revolt. He therefore openly declared his revolt against Darius, abdicated from his role as tyrant, and declared Miletus to be a democracy.

January 498 BC: Cius was taken by the Persians, after the burning of Sardis, in 499 BC.

January 498 BC: The island of Kalymna was captured by the Persians.

January 498 BC: The island of Arkesseia was captured by the Persians.

January 498 BC: The island of Eteokarpathioi was captured by the Persians.

January 498 BC: The island of Karpathos was captured by the Persians.

January 498 BC: The island of Astypalaia (Kos) was captured by the Persians.

January 498 BC: The island of Halasarna was captured by the Persians.

January 498 BC: The island of Kos was captured by the Persians.

January 498 BC: The island of Kos Meropis was captured by the Persians.

January 498 BC: The island of Leros was captured by the Persians.

January 498 BC: The island of Saros was captured by the Persians.

January 498 BC: The island of Syme was captured by the Persians.

January 498 BC: The island of Telos was captured by the Persians.

9.1.1.Ionian offensive

Was a revolt of the Greek cities of Ionia (Asia Minor) against Achaemenid rule.

June 498 BC: Artaphernes still held the citadel with a significant force of men. The lower city then caught on fire, Herodotus suggests accidentally, which quickly spread. The Persians in the citadel, being surrounded by a burning city, emerged into the market-place of Sardis, where they fought with the Greeks, forcing them back. The Greeks, demoralised, then retreated from the city, and began to make their way back to Ephesus.

January 497 BC: Seeing the spread of the Ionians rebellion, the kingdoms of Cyprus also revolted against Persian rule without any outside persuasion. In Cyprus, all the kingdoms had revolted except that of Amathus.

January 497 BC: Despite the defeat at Ephesus, the revolt actually spread further. The Ionians sent men to the Hellespont and Propontis and captured Byzantium and the other nearby cities.

April 497 BC: The Ionians persuaded the Carians to join the rebellion against the Achaemenid Empire.

9.1.2.Flight of Aristagoras

Flight of the tyrant of Miletus, Aristagoras, from the city.

January 496 BC: At the height of the Persian counter-offensive, Aristagoras, sensing his untenable position, decided to abandon his responsibilities as leader of Miletus and of the revolt. In Thrace, he took control of the city that Histiaeus had founded, Myrcinus.

9.1.3.Persian counter-offensive agains the rebel Poleis

Were a series of military offensives by the Achaemenids to reconquere rebel territories in Asia Minor.

January 496 BC: The revolt in Cyprus was crashed.

January 495 BC: Carian Campaign: Battle of the Labraunda.

January 492 BC: The Gallipoli Peninsula was abandoned to the Persians in 493 BC.

January 492 BC: In -493 BC, the Persian fleet and army, led by the Persian king Darius I, wintered at Miletus before launching a campaign to suppress the Ionian Revolt. The islands of Chios, Lesbos, and Tenedos were captured by the Persian forces as they sought to regain control of the region.

January 492 BC: The Persian army then re-conquered the settlements on the Asian side of the Propontis, while the Persian fleet sailed up the European coast of the Hellespont, taking each settlement in turn. With all of Asia Minor now firmly returned to Persian rule, the revolt was finally over.

9.2.First Persian invasion of Greece

Were a series of campaigns of Achaemenid ruler Darius the Great against the poleis of Greece resulting in Persian occupation of Thrace but also in the Persian defeat in Greece proper.

January 490 BC: The Persians besiege and destroy Eretria.

January 490 BC: The Athenians, troubled by the possibility of Persia using Aegina as a naval base, asked Sparta to intervene. Faced with two Spartan kings, the Aeginetans capitulated.

January 490 BC: Persian embassies demanded the submission of Greek states. The citizens decided to submit to the Persian ambassadors.

October 490 BC: The Persian defeat at Marathon ended for the time being the Persian invasion of Greece.

January 489 BC: Anaphe passed under Persian control during the First Persian invasion of Greece.

January 489 BC: Ios passed under Persian control during the First Persian invasion of Greece.

January 489 BC: Ioulis passed under Persian control during the First Persian invasion of Greece.

January 489 BC: Koresia passed under Persian control during the First Persian invasion of Greece.

January 489 BC: Poiessa passed under Persian control during the First Persian invasion of Greece.

January 489 BC: Keria passed under Persian control during the First Persian invasion of Greece.

January 489 BC: Kimolos passed under Persian control during the First Persian invasion of Greece.

January 489 BC: Pholegandros passed under Persian control during the First Persian invasion of Greece.

January 489 BC: Kythnos passed under Persian control during the First Persian invasion of Greece.

January 489 BC: Mykonos passed under Persian control during the First Persian invasion of Greece.

January 489 BC: Minoa passed under Persian control during the First Persian invasion of Greece.

January 489 BC: Arkesine passed under Persian control during the First Persian invasion of Greece.

January 489 BC: Syros passed under Persian control during the First Persian invasion of Greece.

January 489 BC: Thera passed under Persian control during the First Persian invasion of Greece.

January 489 BC: Tenos passed under Persian control during the First Persian invasion of Greece.

January 489 BC: Rheneia passed under Persian control during the First Persian invasion of Greece.

January 489 BC: Siphnos passed under Persian control during the First Persian invasion of Greece.

January 489 BC: Seriphos passed under Persian control during the First Persian invasion of Greece.

January 489 BC: Sikinos passed under Persian control during the First Persian invasion of Greece.

January 489 BC: The Persian fleet, led by King Darius I, approached Delos in -490. The Delians, fearing the Persian invasion, abandoned their homes and sought refuge elsewhere. The territory of Delos eventually fell under the control of the Achaemenid Empire.

January 489 BC: Aigiale passed under Persian control during the First Persian invasion of Greece.

January 489 BC: Andros passed under Persian control during the First Persian invasion of Greece.

January 489 BC: Paros passed under Persian control during the First Persian invasion of Greece.

February 489 BC: The Persian fleet, led by King Darius I, approached Delos, a sacred island in the Aegean Sea. The Delians, fearing the Persian invasion, abandoned their homes and sought refuge in nearby Athenai. This event marked the beginning of the Greco-Persian Wars.

January 488 BC: The colony was established about 450 BC, during the first Athenian empire, and was retained by Athens (with brief exceptions) for the next six centuries.

January 485 BC: Colchis is conquered by Persia.

January 485 BC: Phasis, a city in Colchis, was conquered by the Achaemenid Empire under the rule of Darius I in -486. This event marked the incorporation of Colchis into the Persian Empire, as evidenced by later historical events.

January 485 BC: The towns of Halisarna, Pergamum, and Teuthrania had been given by the Persian king Darius I to the Spartan king Demaratus about the year 486 BC for his help in the expedition against Greece.

January 480 BC: Greek colony established in the V century BC by East Greeks.

January 480 BC: Eion was fortified in the V Century.

9.2.1.Mardonius' campaign

Was the military campaign of Achaemenid general Mardonius during the First Persian Invasion of Greece.

January 491 BC: Whilst the Persian army was camped in Macedon, the Brygians, a local Thracian tribe, launched a night raid against the Persian camp, killing many of the Persians, and wounding Mardonius. Despite his injury, Mardonius made sure that the Brygians were defeated and subjugated, before leading his army back to the Hellespont.

January 491 BC: The army then marched through Thrace, re-subjugating it, since these lands had already been added to the Persian Empire in 512 BC.

January 491 BC: The Persian fleet crossed to Thasos, resulting in the Thasians submitting to the Persians.

9.2.2.Datis and Artaphernes' campaign

Was the military campaign of Achaemenid generals Datis and Artapherne during the First Persian Invasion of Greece.

January 489 BC: The Persian fleet, led by King Darius I, sailed next to Naxos to punish the Naxians for their rebellion against the Achaemenid Empire. The failed expedition a decade earlier had resulted in the Persians being driven out of the island.

February 489 BC: In -489, the Persian fleet, led by King Darius I, sailed to Naxos to punish the Naxians for their resistance to the failed expedition led by Mardonius a decade earlier. The territory of Naxos was then taken over by Athenai.

9.3.Second Persian invasion of Greece

Was an unsuccesful military campaign waged by Achaemenid King Xerxes I that sought to conquer all of Greece.

June 480 BC: Having crossed into Europe in April 480 BC, the Persian army began its march to Greece.

September 480 BC: The Battle of Thermopylae was fought in 480 BC between the Achaemenid Persian Empire under Xerxes I and an alliance of Greek city-states led by Sparta under Leonidas I. Persia gained control of Phocis, Boeotia, and Attica after defeating the Greek forces.

October 480 BC: The Persian victory at Thermopylae (480 BC) meant that all Boeotia fell to Xerxes.

October 480 BC: Athens, with the whole of Attica, fell to the Achaemenid Empire in September 480 BC.

November 480 BC: A Persian general known as Artabazus escorted Xerxes to the Hellespont with 60,000 men; as he neared Pallene on the return journey to Thessaly. Despite attempts to capture Potidaea by treachery, the Persians were forced to keep up the siege for three months. Artabazus was thus forced to lift the siege, and return to Mardonius in Thessaly with the remnants of his men.

January 479 BC: Phanoteus: Destroyed in 480 BC.

January 479 BC: Parapotamioi was destroyed in 480 BC (and then probably reubilt).

January 479 BC: With the Allies now dug in across the isthmus, there was therefore little chance of the Persians conquering the rest of Greece by land. In summary, if Xerxes could destroy the Allied navy, he would be in a strong position to force a Greek surrender; this seemed the only hope of concluding the campaign in that season. Conversely by avoiding destruction, or as Themistocles hoped, by destroying the Persian fleet, the Greeks could avoid conquest. Partly as a result of subterfuge on the part of Themistocles, the navies finally engaged in the cramped Straits of Salamis. The Greek fleet attacked, and scored a decisive victory. All of the Persian forces abandoned Attica, with Mardonius over-wintering in Boeotia and Thessaly. Some Athenians were thus able to return to their burnt-out city for the winter.

January 479 BC: The city of Pedieis in Phokis was destroyed in -480 BC during the Greco-Persian Wars.

January 479 BC: Hyampolis: Destroyed in 480 BC.

January 479 BC: Erochos was destroyed in 480 BC (and then probably reubilt).

January 479 BC: Elateia (Phokis) was destroyed in 480 BC (and then probably reubilt).

January 479 BC: Drymos: Destroyed in 480 BC.

January 479 BC: Daulis was destroyed in 480 BC (and then probably reubilt).

January 479 BC: Charadra was destroyed in 480 BC (and then probably reubilt).

January 479 BC: The Persians left Abai.

April 479 BC: After the failed Greek uprising against the Persian rule, the Athenians, led by Themistocles, abandoned their city once more in -479. The Persians, under the command of Xerxes I, then regained control of Athens and Attica.

July 479 BC: Mardonius, a Persian general, retreated to Boeotia near Plataea to draw the Allied army led by the Athenian general Pausanias into open terrain where his cavalry could be advantageous. This event took place in -479 during the Greco-Persian Wars.

July 479 BC: Mardonius, a Persian general, retreated to Boeotia near Plataea to draw the Allied army, led by the Athenian general Pausanias, into open terrain where his cavalry could be advantageous. This event took place in -479 during the Greco-Persian Wars.

July 479 BC: Mardonius, a Persian general, retreated to Boeotia near Plataea in -479, attempting to lure the Allied army led by the Athenian general Pausanias into open terrain to leverage his cavalry advantage.

September 479 BC: The Battle of Plataea was the final land battle between the Achaemenid Empire and the Greek Poleis during the second Persian invasion of Greece. The Persian infantry proved no match for the heavily armoured Greek hoplites, and the Spartans broke through to General Mardonius's bodyguard and killed him. The Persian force thus dissolved and 40,000 troops managed to escape to Thessaly. The Persians also left territories occupied in Olynthos.

9.4.Greek reconquests after the Second Persian Invasion of Greece

The final defeat of the Persians at Mycale during the Second Persian Invasion of Greece encouraged the Greek cities of Asia to revolt, and the Persians lost all of their territories in Europe.

August 479 BC: The immediate result of the victory at Mycale was a second revolt amongst the Greek cities of Asia Minor. The Samians and Milesians had actively fought against the Persians at Mycale, thus openly declaring their rebellion.

August 479 BC: After the Battle of Mycale in -479, the islands of Samos, Chios, and Lesbos joined the Delian League, an alliance led by Athenian statesman and general, Themistocles. The league was formed to defend against the Persian Empire and promote Athenian interests in the Aegean region.

October 479 BC: The Persian governor, Artayctes, had not prepared for a siege, not believing that the Allies would attack. The Athenians therefore were able to lay a siege around Sestos. The Persians fled at night from the least guarded area of the city. The Athenians were thus able to take possession of the city.

January 478 BC: The Odrysians eventually stepped into the light of history in the aftermath of the Persian failure in Greece. Teres most likely came to dominate central Thrace soon after 480 BC.

January 478 BC: The final defeat of the Persians at Mycale, led by the Greek general Leotychides and the Spartan general Xanthippus, encouraged the Greek cities of Asia to revolt. This resulted in the Persians losing all of their territories in Europe, allowing Macedonia to regain its independence under King Alexander I.

January 478 BC: The Kingdom of Macedonia regained independence following the defeat and withdrawal of the Achaemenid Empire in 479 BC.

January 477 BC: The Greek fleet then sailed to Byzantium, which they besieged and captured.

January 477 BC: The Persians were defeated by forces from Athens in 478 BC.

9.5.Wars of the Delian League

Were a series of campaigns fought between the Delian League of Athens and her allies (and later subjects), and the Achaemenid Empire of Persia.

January 477 BC: Lebedos joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Pteleon joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Sidousa joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Prokonnesos joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Larisa (Aiolis) joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Pythopolis joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Arkesine became a member of the Delian League, an alliance led by Athens.

January 477 BC: Zeleia joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Kyzikos joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Priene joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Elaia joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Gryneion joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Karene joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Kyme (Aiolis) joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Pitane joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Pordoselene joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Kolophon joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Erythrai (Ionia) joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Neandreia joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Tereia joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: After the capture of Byzantium, the Spartans elected not to continue the war effort, and a new alliance, commonly known as the Delian League, was formed, with Athens very much the dominant power.

January 477 BC: Klazomenai joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Airai joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Ephesos joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Marathesion joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Myous joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Pygela joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: In the 5th century BC, Kelenderis was a member of the Attic-Delic Sea League.

January 477 BC: Boutheia joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: In 478 BC, several cities joined the Athenian-dominated Delian League.

January 477 BC: Arisbe joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Notion (Ionia) joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Minoa became a member of the Delian League, an alliance led by Athens.

January 477 BC: Parion joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: After the defeat of Xerxes the Thasians joined the Delian League.

January 477 BC: Polichnitai (Ionia) joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Priapos joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: After the Persian Wars, Amphipolis became a member of the Attic Sea League.

January 477 BC: Traïlos joined the Delian League at its founding in 478 BC.

January 477 BC: Several cities passed to the Delian League after the persians were beaten back.

January 477 BC: The Persians were expelled from the Thracian Chersonese (modern-day Gallipoli Peninsula), after which the peninsula was for a time ruled by Athens, which enrolled it into the Delian League in 478 BC.

January 477 BC: Astyra joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Aigiale became a member of the Delian League, an alliance led by Athens.

January 477 BC: Teos joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: After the failed Persian invasion, Abydos became a member of the Athenian-led Delian League.

January 477 BC: Myrleia/Bryllion joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Liberation of Ophryneion.

January 477 BC: The city of Rhoiteion was freed after the war with the Persians.

January 477 BC: Assos joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Astyra Troika joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Birytis joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Dardanos joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Gargara joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Gentinos joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Gergis joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Ilion joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Myrina (Aiolis) joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Kebren joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Lamponeia joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Palaiperkote joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Phokaia joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Perkote joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Sigeion joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Skepsis joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Lampsakos joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Kokylion joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Tenedos joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Artaiou Teichos joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Artake joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Astakos (Propontic Coast of Asia Minor) joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Dios Hieron joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Bysbikos joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Daskyleion joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Didymon Teichos joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Harpagion joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Kalchedon joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Kolonai (Propontic Coast of Asia Minor) joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 477 BC: Miletouteichos joined the Delian League. The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states founded in 478 BC under the leadership of Athens.

January 474 BC: Eion is besieged by the Athenian Empire.

January 473 BC: After the fall of Eion, other coastal cities of the area surrendered to the Delian League, with the notable exception of Doriscus.

January 469 BC: According to Plutarch, Cimon sailed with these 200 triremes to the Greek city of Phaselis (in Lycia) but was refused admittance. He therefore began ravaging the lands of Phaselis, but with the mediation of the Chian contingent of his fleet, the people of Phaselis agreed to join the league.

January 467 BC: Cimon, in 468 BC, attacked the city and it was enrolled in the Delian Confederacy.

January 465 BC: The accession of further cities of Asia Minor to the Delian league, particularly from Caria, probably followed the battle of Eurymedon.

January 464 BC: The Achaemenids probably recalled the Governor of Doriscus Mascames with his garrison around 465 BC, and finally abandoned this last Achaemenid stronghold in Europe.

January 464 BC: At some point between 468 and 465 BC, the Athenians under Cimon fought the Persians at the Eurymedon, and won, thus adding Pamphylia to their "Delian League" empire.

January 464 BC: At this point, some Persian forces were holding (or had re-taken) some part of the Chersonesos with the help of native Thracians. Cimon sailed to the Chersonesos with just 4 triremes, but managed to capture the 13 ships of the Persians, and then proceeded to drive them out of the peninsula.

January 464 BC: At some point between 468 and 465 BC, the Athenians under Cimon fought the Persians at the Eurymedon, and won; thus adding Pamphylia to their "Delian League" empire.

9.5.1.Expedition in Achaemenid Egypt

Was a Greek military campaign in the Achaemenid satrapy of Egypt.

January 459 BC: Inaros appealed to the Delian League for assistance in their fight against the Persians.

January 454 BC: Siege of Prosopitis.

10. Peloponnesian War

Was an ancient Greek war fought between Athens and Sparta and their respective allies for the hegemony of the Greek world.

January 429 BC: The Lycians once again fell under Persian domination, and by 412 BC, Lycia is documented as fighting on the winning side of Persia.

January 427 BC: Caria returned to Achaemenid rule for about one century, from around 428 BC.

January 426 BC: Athens took over all the so-called Actaean cities in the Troad.

10.1.Second Phase - Deceleian War

Was the second phase of the Peloponnesian War, where Sparta allied with Persia against Athens, which capitulated and lost its empire.

January 403 BC: Heraclea Cybistra taken back by Persia.

January 403 BC: Toward the end of the Peloponnesian War, the Athenians were weakened enough that the Persians were able to retake Pamphylia.

January 403 BC: Following the end of the Peloponnesian War in 404 BC, Adramyttium came again under the control of Mytilene.

January 403 BC: Toward the end of the Peloponnesian War, the Athenians were weakened enough that the Persians were able to retake several territories.

January 403 BC: In -404, the city of Athens was a member of the Attic-Delic Sea League, an alliance of city-states in ancient Greece. The league was led by Athens and played a significant role in the politics and military affairs of the region during that time.

11. Achaemenid-Egyptian War

Was the struggle of Egypt to became independent from the Achaemenid Empire that started with the secession of Amyrtaeus from Persia around 404 BC and ended with the reconquest of Egypt by Artaxerxes III.

11.1.Secession of Egypt from Persia

Egypt was effectively a province (satrapy) of the Achaemenid Persian Empire between 525 BC and 404 BC. It was disestablished upon the rebellion and crowning of Amyrtaeus as Pharaoh.

January 403 BC: Egypt was effectively a province (satrapy) of the Achaemenid Persian Empire between 525 BC and 404 BC. It was disestablished upon the rebellion and crowning of Amyrtaeus as Pharaoh.

11.2.Persian Conquest of Upper Egypt

The Persians conquered Upper Egypt from Pharaoh Amyrtaeus who had been able to make Egypt a Kingdom independent from Persia a couple of years before.

January 399 BC: The Elephantine papyri also demonstrate that between 404 and 400 BC (or even 398) Upper Egypt remained under Persian control, while the forces of Amyrtaeus dominated the Delta.

11.3.Persian Campaign in Egypt (385 BC)

The Persians first attacked Egypt in 385 BCE but after three years of war the Egyptians managed to defeat the invaders.

January 384 BC: This period is quite obscure, but it seems that the Persians first attacked Egypt in 385 BC and, after three years of war, the Egyptians managed to defeat the invaders.

February 384 BC: This period is quite obscure, but it seems that the Persians first attacked Egypt in 385 BC and, after three years of war, the Egyptians managed to defeat the invaders.

January 372 BC: Joint Egyptian and Spartan forces occupy Phoenicia.

February 372 BC: The Persians did manage to defeat a joint Egyptian-Spartan effort to conquer Phoenicia

January 358 BC: In 359 BC, Artaxerxes III, the King of the Achaemenid Empire, launched an attack on Egypt in response to Egypt's unsuccessful attempts to conquer coastal regions of Phoenicia. This marked the beginning of the Achaemenid rule over Ancient Egypt.

February 358 BC: In -358 BC, the Persian king Artaxerxes III attacked Egypt in retaliation for Egypt's unsuccessful attacks on the coastal regions of Phoenicia. This conflict marked a significant event in the ongoing power struggles between the Persian Empire and Ancient Egypt.

11.4.First Egyptian Campaign of Artaxerxes II

Was the first military campaign to reconquer Egypt by Achaemenid ruler Artaxerxes III.

January 350 BC: In around 351 BC, Artaxerxes embarked on a campaign to recover Egypt. At the same time a rebellion had broken out in Asia Minor supported by Thebes. Levying a vast army, Artaxerxes marched into Egypt, and engaged Nectanebo II. After a year of fighting the Egyptian Pharaoh, Nectanebo inflicted a crushing defeat on the Persians with the support of mercenaries led by the Greek generals Diophantus and Lamius. Artaxerxes was compelled to retreat and postpone his plans to reconquer Egypt.

February 350 BC: In around 351 BC, Artaxerxes embarked on a campaign to recover Egypt. At the same time a rebellion had broken out in Asia Minor supported by Thebes. Levying a vast army, Artaxerxes marched into Egypt, and engaged Nectanebo II. After a year of fighting the Egyptian Pharaoh, Nectanebo inflicted a crushing defeat on the Persians with the support of mercenaries led by the Greek generals Diophantus and Lamius. Artaxerxes was compelled to retreat and postpone his plans to reconquer Egypt.

11.5.Second Egyptian Campaign of Artaxerxes II

Was the second Egyptian campaign of Artaxerxes II where the Achaemenid ruler reconquered Egypt.

January 342 BC: Second Egyptian Campaign of Achaemenid ruler Artaxerxes II.

12. Sicilian Wars

Were a series of conflicts fought between ancient Carthage and the Greek city-states led by Syracuse (Sicily) over the control of Sicily and the western Mediterranean.

12.1.Third Sicilian War

Was a conflict fought between ancient Carthage and the Greek city-states led by Syracuse (Sicily) over the control of Sicily and the western Mediterranean.

January 397 BC: Spartan expedition to Ionia in 398 BC. Agesilaus campaigned effectively against the Persians in Lydia, advancing as far inland as Sardis. The satrap Tissaphernes was executed for his failure to contain Agesilaus, and his replacement, Tithraustes, bribed the Spartans to move north, into the satrapy of Pharnabazus, Hellespontine Phrygia.

January 397 BC: Larisa (Troas) is freed by the Spartan Dercylidas in 398 BC.

13. Corinthian War

Was a conflict in ancient Greece which pitted Sparta against a coalition of city-states comprising Thebes, Athens, Corinth and Argos, backed by the Achaemenid Empire.

January 393 BC: Following the victory in the battle of Cnedus, Conon and Pharnabazus sailed along the coast of Ionia, expelling Spartan governors and garrisons from the cities, although they failed to reduce the Spartan bases at Abydos and Sestos under the command of Dercylidas.

January 392 BC: The Athenian general Conon, a prominent military leader during the Peloponnesian War, joined forces with the Persian satrap Pharnabazus to launch a raid on the Laconian Coast in -393. This alliance between Athens and the Achaemenid Empire was part of a larger strategy to challenge Spartan dominance in the region.

January 392 BC: In -393, the Athenian fleet, led by Conon and Pharnabazus, sought revenge on the Spartans by attacking Lacedaemonian territory. They devastated Pherae and raided the Messenian coast, ultimately gaining control of the region for the Achaemenid Empire.

January 392 BC: From 393 BC, Pharnabazus II and Conon sailed with their fleet to the Aegean island of Melos and established a base there.

February 392 BC: In -392 BC, the Persian fleet, led by the admiral Conon, sought revenge on the Spartans for their support of the Athenians in the Peloponnesian War. They invaded Lacedaemonian territory, destroying Pherae and raiding along the Messenian coast. This event marked a significant conflict between Persia and Sparta in ancient Greece.

February 392 BC: The Athenian general Conon, a prominent military leader during the Peloponnesian War, joined forces with the Persian satrap Pharnabazus to launch a raid on the Laconian Coast in -392. This marked a significant shift in alliances and tactics during the ongoing power struggles in ancient Greece.

13.1.The King's Peace / Peace of Antalcidas

Was a peace treaty guaranteed by the Persian King Artaxerxes II that ended the Corinthian War in ancient Greece.

January 386 BC: At the conclusion of the Corinthian War, under the terms of the Peace of Antalcidas in 387 BC, the coast of asia minor was annexed to Persia.

January 386 BC: From 387 BC BC Kalchedon was under Persian suzerainty.

January 385 BC: Mytilene retained control of Adramyttium until 386 BC, after which the city formed again part of the Persian Empire by the terms of the Peace of Antalcidas.

14. Achaemenid occupation of Sinope (375 BC)

The Achaemenid satrap Datames briefly occupied Sinop around 375 BC.

January 374 BC: The satrap Datames briefly occupied the city of Sinop around 375 BC.

February 374 BC: The satrap Datames was a Persian general and governor of Cappadocia. He briefly occupied Sinope in -374 BC, a Greek city on the Black Sea coast. Sinope was an important city known for its strategic location and trade routes.

15. Wars of the Rise of Macedon

Expansion of Macedonia under King Philip II.

15.1.Third Sacred War

Was fought between the forces of the Delphic Amphictyonic League, principally represented by Thebes, and latterly by Philip II of Macedon, and the Phocians.

January 345 BC: From at least as early as 346 Chios fell within the Hekatomnid sphere of power.

15.1.1.Peace of Philocrates

The Peace of Philocrates aknowledged the territorial conquests of Macedonia in Phocis and Thrace.

January 345 BC: On July 19, Philip II of Macedon made a truce with Phalaikos, the ruler of Phocis. As part of the agreement, Phalaikos surrendered the region to Macedonia.

16. Usurpation in Upper Egypt

Khababash was a secessionist Egyptian ruler that controlled the area of Sais.

January 337 BC: Khababash was a pharaoh of Upper Egypt who ruled from Sais in Lower Egypt between 338 BC and 336 BC. His reign occurred during the second Persian domination.

January 335 BC: In 336 BC, Upper Egypt fell under the control of the Achaemenid Empire.

17. Egyptian Invasion of Nubia

Sometime in the 330s BCE the Egyptian ruler of Sais, Khababash, led an invasion into the kingdom of Kush.

January 336 BC: Sometime in the 330s BC, an Egyptian ruler called Kambasuten - who is widely recognized as Khabash - led an invasion into the kingdom of Kush which was defeated by king Nastasen as recorded in a stela now in the Berlin museum. An Apis bull sarcophagus bearing his name was found at Saqqara and dated to his regnal Year 2.

February 336 BC: Sometime in the 330s BC, an Egyptian ruler called Kambasuten - who is widely recognized as Khabash - led an invasion into the kingdom of Kush which was defeated by king Nastasen as recorded in a stela now in the Berlin museum. An Apis bull sarcophagus bearing his name was found at Saqqara and dated to his regnal Year 2.

18. Philip´s Campaign in Asia minor

In 336 BC Philip II of Macedon was authorized by the League of Corinth as its Hegemon to initiate a sacred war of vengeance against the Persians for desecrating and burning the Athenian temples during the Second Persian War, over a century before.

January 335 BC: In 336 BC Philip II of Macedon was authorized by the League of Corinth as its Hegemon to initiate a sacred war of vengeance against the Persians for desecrating and burning the Athenian temples during the Second Persian War, over a century before.

19. Wars of Alexander the Great

Were a series of conquests that were carried out by Alexander III of Macedon (known as Alexander "The Great") from 336 BC to 323 BC. Alexander conquered the Persian Empire and also expanded his kingdom into the Indian Subcontinent.

19.1.Alexander's War in Persia

Were the military campaigns by Alexander the Great King of Macedon in the territories of the Achaemenid Empire.

19.1.1.Conquest of the Achaemenid Empire

Was a military campaign by Alexander the Great King of Macedon in Asia that resulted in the conquest of the Achaemenid Empire.

June 334 BC: Battle of the Granicus.

June 334 BC: Troy conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

July 334 BC: Ephesus conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

July 334 BC: Sardes conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

August 334 BC: Siege of Miletus.

October 334 BC: Siege of Halicarnassus.

January 333 BC: Phaselis conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

January 333 BC: Lycia conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

February 333 BC: Perge conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

February 333 BC: Termessos conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

May 333 BC: Gordion conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

October 333 BC: Tarsus conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

November 333 BC: Soli conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

November 333 BC: Battle of Issus. Alexander the Great decisively defeats the Persian army of Darius.

December 333 BC: Alexandretta or Alexandria near Issus conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

January 332 BC: Aspendos conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

January 332 BC: The various kingdoms of Cyprus became allies of Alexander following his victorious campaigns at Granicus (334 BC) and Issus (333 BC).

January 332 BC: Aradus Island conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

January 332 BC: Cydnos River conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

January 332 BC: Cilician Gates conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

January 332 BC: Ankyra (Ankara, Turkey) conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

January 332 BC: Kelainai (near Dinar, Turkey) in Pisidia conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

January 332 BC: Side conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

February 332 BC: Sidon (Lebanon), Phoenicia, conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

February 332 BC: Byblos (40 km north of Beirut, Lebanon) conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

August 332 BC: Siege of Tyre. The city fell to the Macedonians.

November 332 BC: Siege of Gaza. The city fell to the Macedonians.

January 331 BC: Damascus conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

January 331 BC: Rhodes became part of the rapidly growing Macedonian Empire as Alexander the Great swept through and defeated the Persians in 332 BC, to the great relief of the islands' inhabitants.

January 331 BC: After ending the Persian Empire, Alexander the Great tried to rule Cappadocia through one of his military commanders. But Ariarathes, a Persian aristocrat, somehow became king of the Cappadocians, establishing an independent kingdom.

January 331 BC: Jerusalem conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

January 331 BC: Pelusium (Port Said, Egypt) conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

February 331 BC: Memphis conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

February 331 BC: Foundation of Alexandria.

March 331 BC: Siwa conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

August 331 BC: Edessa, or Urhai (Urfa, Turkey), conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

August 331 BC: Tigris conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

August 331 BC: Harran conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

August 331 BC: Thapsacus (Tipsah) conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

October 331 BC: Battle of Gaugamela. Alexander's decisive victory leading to the collapse of the Persian Empire.

November 331 BC: Babylon conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

November 331 BC: Arbela (Arbil/Irbil, Iraq) in Mesopotamia conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

January 330 BC: Alep conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

January 330 BC: Susa conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

January 330 BC: Battle of the Persian Gate.

February 330 BC: Persepolis conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

July 330 BC: Rhagae (Rey, Iran) conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

July 330 BC: Caspian Gates (between modern Eyvanakey and Aradan or Tehran and Semnan, Iran, Media/Parthia border) conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

July 330 BC: Ecbatana (Hamadan, Iran) conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

July 330 BC: Deh Bid Pass conquered by Kingdom of Macedonia.

19.1.2.Persian Conquest of Lesbos

Was a Persian military expedition tha resulted in the conquest of the island of Lesbos.

January 333 BC: The Persian fleet managed to conquer Lesbos.

January 333 BC: When Alexander the Great started the conquest of the Persian Empire, the Persian fleet managed to conquer Lesbos.

19.1.3.Campaigns of Alexander the Great against the Achaemenid rebel Satrapies

Were a series of military campaign by Alexander the Great, King of Macedon, in the regions of the Achaemenid Empire that had become de facto independent after the collapse of the Empire.

August 330 BC: With the death of Achaemenid ruler Darius III the eastern provinces became de facto indipendent.

August 330 BC: The Macedonian Empire did never control the Kushite region, south of Egypt, which reverted to an independent Kingdom.

20. Wars of the Diadochi

Were a series of conflicts that were fought between the generals of Alexander the Great, known as the Diadochi, over who would rule his empire following his death.

20.1.Third War of the Diadochi

Was a war between Macedonian Generals that saw Ptolemy, Lysimachus and Cassander fight against Antigonus.

January 313 BC: Death of Peithon, who was one of the Diadochi. Media fell under the rule of Macedonian general Seleucus.

January 311 BC: By the end of the 4th century BC, Drangiana was part of the Seleucid Empire.

20.2.Consolidation of the borders after the Third War of the Diadochi

Were a series of events and military operations after the Third war of the Diadochi that led to the consolidation of the borders between the successor states of the Macedonian Empire.

January 296 BC: Zipoites establishes the Kingdom of Bithynia.

January 293 BC: Seleucus took most of Cilicia.

20.3.Babylonian War

Was a conflict fought in 311-309 BC between Antigonus I Monophthalmus and Seleucus I Nicator, ending in a victory for Seleucus.

June 311 BC: The Babylonian War was a conflict fought between the Diadochi kings Antigonus I Monophthalmus and Seleucus I Nicator. Seleucus, reinforced with Macedonian veterans from Harran, reached his former capital Babylon. He was soon recognized as the new ruler.

December 311 BC: Antigonus' satraps in Media and Aria, Nicanor and Euagoras, now decided to intervene with an army of 10,000 infantry and 7,000 horsemen, but Seleucus and an army of 3,000 infantry and 400 cavalry had been waiting for them near the Tigris since September. By hiding his men in one of the marshes and attacking by night, Seleucus was able to defeat the Macedonian soldiers in the army of Nicanor and Euagoras, after which the Iranian soldiers decided to side with the ruler of Babylonia.

June 310 BC: Seleucus drives Demetrios out of Babylon.

June 310 BC: News of the defeat of Nicanor and Euagoras must have reached Antigonus at about the time of his signing the Peace of the Dynasts (December 311 BC). He ordered his son Demetrius Poliorcetes to restore order; he arrived in the early spring of 310 BC.

September 310 BC: The forces of general Antigonus leave Babylon.

November 310 BC: Without any problems, Seleucus could move through the Zagros Mountains, occupy Ecbatana (the capital of Media), and continue to Susa (the capital of Elam). He now controlled southern Iraq and the greater part of Iran.

April 309 BC: Antigonos is repulsed from Babylon.

January 308 BC: The victor now moved to the east and reached the Indus valley, where he concluded a treaty with Chandragupta Maurya. The Mauryan emperor received the eastern parts of the Seleucid Empire, which included Afghanistan, Pakistan and west India, and gave Seleucus a formidable force of five hundred war elephants.

20.4.Fourth War of the Diadochi

Was a war between Macedonian generals that saw Ptolemy, Lysimachus and Cassander fight against Antigonus and Demetrios.

September 301 BC: Battle of Ipsos: Antigonus falls, Seleucus annexes Syria and Cappadocia, Lysimachus annexes Hellespont, Phrygia and Ionia. Cilicia went to Cassander's brother Pleistarchus (as an indipendent reign). Demetrius, retained control of Cyprus, the Peloponnese, and many of the Aegean islands, as well as the Aegean coast.

20.5.Fifth War of the Diadochi

Was a war between Macedonian Generals that saw Ptolemy, Lysimachus and Seleucus fight against Demetrios.

January 286 BC: In -287, Ptolemy I Soter, the founder of the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt, took over the territories of Sidon and Tyre. These cities were important Phoenician ports known for their trade and naval power. Ptolemy's conquest further expanded his influence in the region.

20.6.Sixth War of the Diadochi

Was a war between Macedonian Generals that saw Lysimachus fight against Seleucus.

January 281 BC: In 282 BC the Tarentines, who were drunkenly celebrating parties in honor of the god Dionysus in a theater overlooking the sea, escorted by the Roman ships (of merchants), believed that they were advancing against them and attacked them. After the attack on the Roman fleet, the Tarentines, realizing that their reaction to the Roman provocation could lead to war and convinced of Rome's hostile attitude, marched against Thurii, which was taken and sacked. The Tarentines, who did not respect the following embassies from Rome, thus began the war, also involving Epirus, called to help by the Tarentines against the Romans.

April 281 BC: Seleucus, after appointing his son Antiochus ruler of his Asian territories, defeated and killed Lysimachus at the Battle of Corupedium in Lydia.

21. Military campaigns of Chandragupta Maurya

Military campaign of Chandragupta Maurya, founder of the Mauryan Empire.

21.1.Seleucid-Mauryan war

Was a ware waged by the Seleucid Kingdom to conquer back former Macedonian Satrapies in the Indus Valley from the Mauryan Empire.

January 302 BC: Expansion of the Magadha Kingdom until 301 BC.

January 302 BC: The emerging and expanding Mauryan Empire came into conflict with Seleucus over the Indus Valley. Seleucus invaded the Punjab region of India, confronting Chandragupta Maurya. Maurya finally gained all the macedonian satrapies in the Indus valley.

January 302 BC: Later Eudemus took over Taxila briefly, however he was killed by Malayketu after which Chandragupta Maurya conquered Alexander's satraps in the sub-continent by BC, and joined hands with Porus earlier, in around 322 BC. Some state that after Alexander's departure from India, Takshashila became a free kingdom, and that's when Porus conquered Takshashila and there, he may have killed Taxiles. However, it still remains unsure what happened to Taxiles, and whether he was deposed or assassinated.

January 302 BC: It seems probable that Oxyartes must have died before the Seleucus's diplomatic/military foray into South Asia, as Seleucus ceded Paropamisadae to Chandragupta Maurya without any mention of Oxyartes.

January 300 BC: After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, Chandragupta led a series of campaigns in 305 BC to retake satrapies in the Indus Valley and northwest India. When Alexander's remaining forces were routed, returning westwards, Seleucus I Nicator fought to defend these territories. Not many details of the campaigns are known from ancient sources. Seleucus was defeated and retreated into the mountainous region of Afghanistan. The two rulers concluded a peace treaty in 303 BC, including a marital alliance. Under its terms, Chandragupta received the satrapies of Paropamisadae (Kamboja and Gandhara) and Arachosia (Kandhahar) and Gedrosia (Balochistan). Seleucus I received the 500 war elephants that were to have a decisive role in his victory against western Hellenistic kings at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC.

22. Syrian Wars

Were a series of six wars between the Seleucid Empire and the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, successor states to Alexander the Great's empire, during the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC mainyl over the region then called Coele-Syria.

22.1.First Syrian War

Was one of the wars between the Seleucid Kingdom and the Ptolemaic Kingdom over the domain in the Levant.

January 273 BC: The Seleucid Empire annexed Coele-Syria.

January 270 BC: Ptolemy II Philadelphus reconquered territories in Syria and Cilicia.

22.2.Second Syrian War

Was one of the wars between the Seleucid Kingdom and the Ptolemaic Kingdom over the domain in the Levant.

January 260 BC: Antioch was conquered by the Seleucids during the Third Syrian War.

January 260 BC: Antiochus II Theos regained Miletus and Ephesus.

22.3.Third Syrian War

Was one of the wars between the Seleucid Kingdom and the Ptolemaic Kingdom over the domain in the Levant.

January 245 BC: Ptolemaic forces conquered several cities of the coast of Propontic Thrace during the Third Syrian War around 246 BC.

January 245 BC: Seleucid presence was replaced by that of the Ptolemies, who established a satrapy in coastal Thrace.

January 245 BC: After 246, for about half a century, the Ptolemies, a dynasty of Macedonian Greek origin, ruled over the territory of nan. The Ptolemaic Kingdom was established by Ptolemy I Soter, a general of Alexander the Great, after his death in 323 BC.

January 240 BC: Antiochus II left two ambitious mothers in a competition to put their respective sons on the throne of the Seleucid Kingdom, Laodice and Berenice. Berenice asked her brother Ptolemy III, the new Ptolemaic king, to come to Antioch and help place her son on the throne. When Ptolemy arrived, Berenice and her child had been assassinated. Ptolemy declared war on Laodice's newly crowned son, Seleucus II, in 246 BC, and campaigned with great success. In exchange for a peace in 241 BC, Ptolemy was awarded new territories on the northern coast of Syria, including Seleucia Pieria, the port of Antioch.

22.4.Fourth Syrian War

Was one of the wars between the Seleucid Kingdom and the Ptolemaic Kingdom over the domain in the Levant.

22.4.1.Invasion of Phoenicia

Was a Seleucid military campaign in Pheonicia to reconquer the region from the Ptoleamic Kingdom during the Fourth Syrian War.

January 218 BC: Upon taking the Seleucid throne in 223 BC, Antiochus III the Great (241-187 BC) set himself the task of restoring the lost imperial possessions of Seleucus I Nicator. Egypt had been significantly weakened by court intrigue and public unrest. The rule of the newly inaugurated Ptolemy IV Philopator (reigned 221-204 BC) began with the murder of queen-mother Berenice II. The young king quickly fell under the absolute influence of imperial courtiers. Antiochus sought to take advantage of this chaotic situation. He finally began the Fourth Syrian War in 219 BC. He recaptured Seleucia Pieria as well as cities in Phoenicia, amongst them Tyre.

22.5.Fifth Syrian War

Was one of the many wars between the Ptolemaic Kingdom and the Seleucid Kingdom over the region of Coele-Syria.

January 199 BC: The death of Ptolemy IV in 204 BC was followed by a bloody conflict over the regency as his heir, Ptolemy V, was just a child. The regency was passed from one adviser to another, and the kingdom was in a state of near anarchy. Seeking to take advantage of this turmoil, Antiochus III staged a second invasion of Coele-Syria. After a brief setback at Gaza, he delivered a crushing blow to the Ptolemies at the Battle of Panium near the head of the River Jordan which earned him the important port of Sidon.

January 197 BC: Antiochus completed the subjugation of Coele-Syria in 198 BC and went on to raid Ptolemy's remaining coastal strongholds in Caria and Cilicia.

22.6.Sixth Syrian War

Was one of the wars between the Seleucid Kingdom and the Ptolemaic Kingdom over the domain in the Levant.

22.6.1.Conquest of Pelusium

The Seleucids conquered Pelusium, in Egypt.

December 170 BC: The Seleucids, led by King Antiochus IV, captured the strategic city of Pelusium in -170. This victory allowed the Seleucid Kingdom to expand its territory and exert control over key trade routes in the region.

22.6.2.Egypt becomes a Seleucid puppet state

Seleucid King Antiochus took Egyptian King Ptolemy VI (who was his nephew) under his guardianship, giving him effective control of Ptolemaic Egypt. .

December 169 BC: The Egyptians realised their folly in starting the war, Eulaeus and Lenaeus were overthrown and replaced by two new regents, Comanus and Cineas, and envoys were sent to negotiate a peace treaty with Antiochus. Antiochus took Ptolemy VI (who was his nephew) under his guardianship, giving him effective control of Egypt.

22.6.3.Revolt of Egypt against the Seleucids

Egypt revolted against Antiochus IV and expelled the Seleucids.

January 168 BC: The people of Alexandria proclaimed Ptolemy Physcon as sole king. Antiochus besieged Alexandria but he was unable to cut communications to the city so, at the end of 169, he withdrew his army.

22.6.4.Intervention of Rome in the Sixth Syrian War

Due to the intervention of Rome, the Seleucid King Antiochus IV was forced to leave the territories conquered from the Ptolemaic Kingdom during the Sixth Syrian War.

January 167 BC: At Eleusis, on the outskirts of the capital, Antiochus met Popilius Laenas, with whom he had been friends during his stay in Rome. But instead of a friendly welcome, Popilius offered the king an ultimatum from the Senate: he must evacuate Egypt and Cyprus immediately. Antiochus begged to have time to consider but Popilius drew a circle round him in the sand with his cane and told him to decide before he stepped outside it. Antiochus chose to obey the Roman ultimatum. The "Day of Eleusis" ended the Sixth Syrian War and Antiochus' hopes of conquering Egyptian territory.

23. Battle of Sardis

Was a battle between the Kingdom of Pergamon and the Seleucid Kingdom near the city of Sardis, in ancient Lydia.

January 262 BC: After the battle of Sardis, Pergamon ceased to be a vassall of the Seleucid Empire.

24. Secession of Cappadocia

The Cappadocian Kingdom - which was relatively indipendant since the death of Alexander the Great - gained its independence during the reign of Ariarathes III.

January 254 BC: The Cappadocian Kingdom, which was relatively indipendant since the death of Alexander the great, gained its independence during the reign of Ariarathes III.

25. Secession of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom

Diodotus, the satrap of Bactria founded the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom when he seceded from the Seleucid Empire around 250 BC.

January 249 BC: Diodotus, the satrap of Bactria founded the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom when he seceded from the Seleucid Empire around 250 BC.

January 245 BC: Diodotus, the satrap of Bactria, founded the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom when he seceded from the Seleucid Empire. The ancient sources are contradictory, and the exact date of Bactrian independence has not been settled.

26. Brother´s War

On the death of his father, in 246 BCE, Antiochus Herax waged war on his brother Seleucus II Callinicus, the ruler of the Seleucid Kingdom, in order to seize Anatolia for himself as an independent kingdom.

January 238 BC: On the death of his father, who was the ruler of the Seleucid Empire, Antiochos Herax waged war on his brother Seleucus II Callinicus, in order to seize Anatolia for himself as an independent kingdom. He defeated his brother at the Battle of Ancyra.

27. Rebellion of Ahaios II

Was the rebellion of Seleucid General Ahaoios II in Asia minor.

27.1.Secession of Asia Minor (Ahaios II)

Was the rebellion of Seleucid General Ahaoios II in Asia minor.

January 220 BC: Ahaios, who governed the satrapies of Anatolia, revolted against the Seleucid king and established his own kingdom.

27.2.Seleucid reconquest of Asia minor (221 BC)

The Seleucid Kingdom reconquered a part of the territories of rebel General Ahaios II.

January 220 BC: Achaeus, who had accompanied Seleucus III, assumed control of the army. He was offered and refused the kingship in favor of Seleucus III's younger brother Antiochus III the Great, who then made Achaeus governor of Seleucid Asia Minor north of the Taurus. Within two years Achaeus had recovered all the lost Seleucid territories, "shut up Attalus within the walls of Pergamon", and assumed the title of king.

27.3.Pergamon invades the Kingdom of Ahaios

The Kingdom of Pergamon invaded the domains of rebel general Ahaios II.

January 217 BC: After a period of peace, in 218 BC, while Achaeus was involved in an expedition to Selge south of the Taurus, Attalus, with some Thracian Gauls, recaptured his former territories. However Achaeus returned from victory in Selge in 217 BC and resumed hostilities with Attalus.

January 217 BC: Attalus recaptured his former territories with the help of some Thracian Gauls.

27.4.Seleucid reconquest of Asia minor (213 BC)

Rebel Seleucid General Ahaios II was defeated.

January 212 BC: At first, Ahaios is tolerated by Antiochos III then he is attacked in Sardis, defeated and killed by him in 213 BC.

28. War between the Seleucid Kingdom and Pergamon (227 BC)

Was a war between the Kingdom of Pergamon and the Seleucid Kingdom where Pergamon gained control over all of Seleucid Asia Minor north of the Taurus Mountains.

January 219 BC: Within two years he recovered the lost territories and forced Attalus within the walls of Pergamon.

29. Seleucid Invasion of Bactria

Was the invasion by the Seleucid ruler Antiochus III around 210 BC of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom that had separated from the Seleucid Kingdom 50 years before.

January 209 BC: Euthydemus was attacked by the Seleucid ruler Antiochus III around 210 BC. Although he commanded 10,000 horsemen, Euthydemus initially lost a battle on the Arius and had to retreat. He then successfully resisted a three-year siege in the fortified city of Bactra, before Antiochus finally decided to recognize the new ruler, and to offer one of his daughters to Euthydemus's son Demetrius.

January 206 BC: Euthydemus was attacked by the Seleucid ruler Antiochus III around 210 BC. Although he commanded 10,000 horsemen, Euthydemus initially lost a battle on the Arius and had to retreat. He then successfully resisted a three-year siege in the fortified city of Bactra, before Antiochus finally decided to recognize the new ruler, and to offer one of his daughters to Euthydemus's son Demetrius.

30. Seleucid-Parthian wars

Were the wars between the secessionist Parthian kingdom and the Seleucid Kingdom.

January 208 BC: Antiochus III was an ambitious Seleucid king who had a vision of reuniting Alexander the Great's empire under the Seleucid dynasty. In 209 BC he launched a campaign to regain control of the eastern provinces, and after defeating the Parthians in battle, he successfully regained control over the region. The Parthians were forced to accept vassal status and now only controlled the land conforming to the former Seleucid province of Parthia.

January 189 BC: At the battle of Magnesia, Seleucids were defeated by Romans in 190 BC. Parthia and Atropatene considered Rome a threat to their independence and therefore allied themselves in the struggle against Rome.

January 186 BC: After the defeat in the battle of Magnesia Antiochus began an expedition into Iran, but was killed in Elymaïs. The Arsacids then took power in Parthia and declared their full independence from the Seleucid Empire.

January 175 BC: Phraates I was the king of the Parthian Empire from 176-171 BC. He successfully expanded Parthia's territory beyond the Gates of Alexander by occupying Apamea Ragiana, a strategic city in the region. This conquest solidified Parthia's control over the area and demonstrated Phraates I's military prowess.

January 169 BC: Margiana, located in present-day Turkmenistan, was conquered by the Parthians under the rule of Mithridates I of Parthia around 170 BC. Mithridates I was a prominent ruler of the Parthian Empire known for expanding its territories through military conquests.

January 147 BC: In 148 BC, the Parthian king Mithridates I invaded Media.

January 146 BC: After suffering a defeat, Mithridates retreated to Hyrcania. His forces then conquered the kingdoms of Elymais and Characene before taking control of Susa, a significant city in the region. This event took place in -147 and marked a significant expansion of the Parthian Empire's territory.

January 146 BC: Parthian conquest of Babylonia in Mesopotamia, where Mithridates had coins minted at Seleucia in 141 BC and held an official investiture ceremony.

January 140 BC: In 141 BC the Parthians captured the major Seleucid city of Seleucia. These victories gave Mithridates control over Mesopotamia and Babylonia.

January 138 BC: In 139 BC the Parthians defeated a major Seleucid counterattack, breaking the Seleucid army, and captured the Seleucid King, Demetrius II, thus effectively ending Seleucid claims to any land east of the Euphrates river.

January 99 BC: By 100 BC, the once formidable Seleucid Empire encompassed little more than Antioch and some Syrian cities.

30.1.Secession of Parthia

Taking advantage of the uncertain political situation in the Seleucid Kingdom, Andragoras, the Seleucid governor of Parthia, proclaimed his independence.

January 246 BC: Following the death of Antiochos II, Ptolemy III seized control of the Seleucid capital at Antioch. Taking advantage of the uncertain political situation, Andragoras, the Seleucid governor of Parthia, proclaimed his independence and began minting his own coins.

January 245 BC: After spending some time in exile among the nomadic Apasiacae tribe, Arsaces led a counterattack and recaptured Parthia.

January 245 BC: Diodotus II formed an alliance with Arsaces against the Seleucids, but Arsaces was temporarily driven from Parthia by the forces of Seleucus II Callinicus.

30.2.Independance of the Parthian Empire

The Parthian Empire became completely independent from the Seleucid Kingdom.

January 175 BC: The Seleucids were unable to further intervene in Parthian affairs following increasing encroachment by the Roman Republic and the Seleucid defeat at Magnesia in 190 BC. Phriapatius of Parthia succeeded Arsaces II, and Phraates I of Parthia eventually ascended the throne. Phraates I ruled Parthia without further Seleucid interference.

30.3.Wars of Antiochus VII

Were the military campaigns of Seleucid King Antiochus VII Sidetes against several usurpers.

31. Macedonian Wars

Were a seris of conflicts between the Roman Republic and Antigonid Macedonia over control of Greece and the eastern Mediterranean Basin. .

31.1.Second Macedonian War

Was a war fought by Rome, allied with the Kingdoms of Pergamons and Rhodes, against Antigonid Macedonia.

January 203 BC: In 205 BC. Ptolemy IV Pharaoh of Egypt died, leaving his six-year-old son Ptolemy V Epiphanes on the throne. Philip V of Macedonia and Antiochus III the Great, king of the Seleucid Empire, decided to exploit the young pharaoh's weakness by stipulating a secret pact which promised the Macedonian king hegemony in the Aegean and Antiochus hegemony over Coele-Syria, Cilicia, the Phenicia and Palestine. Philip first focused on the Greek city-states in Thrace and the Dardanelles area. His advance in the area, with the conquest of Cio, alarmed Rhodes and Pergamum.

32. Cretan War (204-199 BC)

Was fought by King Philip V of Macedon, the Aetolian League, many Cretan cities (of which Olous and Hierapytna were the most important) and Spartan pirates against the forces of Rhodes and later Attalus I of Pergamum, Byzantium, Cyzicus, Athens, and Knossos.

January 200 BC: Philip Macedon seized the cities of Iasos, Bargylia, Euromus and Pedasa in quick succession.

January 200 BC: Philip of Macedon seized the city of Myus and gave it to the Magnesians.

January 200 BC: He took the island of Samos from Ptolemy V.

January 199 BC: In -200, the Macedonians, led by King Philip V of Macedon, advanced on the Thracian Chersonese and captured several cities including Perinthus, Sestos, Elaeus, Alopeconnesus, Callipolis, and Madytus. This expansion of territory was part of Philip V's efforts to strengthen his control over the region.

33. Seleucid Campaign in Asia Minor

Were a series of succesful military campaigns by Antiochus III to expand Selecuid territories in Asia Minor.

33.1.Conquest of territories of Pergamon

Was a military campaign led by Antiochus III the Great against the Kingdom of Pergamon.

January 197 BC: Taking advantage of the Second Macedonian War between Rome and Philip V, Antiochos led an ambitious policy which led him to intervene in Asia Minor and Thrace with the intention, it seems, of restoring the empire of Seleucus. It clashes with the kingdom of Pergamum from 198 BC and occupies the territories taken by Attale I in Achaios, without Eumenes II being able to intervene. He also got along with Prusias of Bithynia, to whom he offered a portion of Phrygia.

33.2.Conquest of the territories in Asia minor up to the the Hellespont

Was a military campaign led by Seleucid ruler Antiochus III the Great that resulted in conquests up to the Hellespont.

January 196 BC: In the spring of 197, Seleucid ruler Antiochos III reached the Hellespont and then occupied the Straits, subjugating the Greek cities that were autonomous or formerly under Antigonid authority. He made Ephesus his main naval base in the Aegean Sea. In Ionia its successes are more limited: Miletus and Magnesia of the Meander remain independent.

33.3.Conquest of Thracia

Was a succesful military campaign led by Seleucid ruler Antiochus III in Thrace.

January 195 BC: Seleucid ruler Antiochus conquered Thrace.

34. Roman-Seleucid War

Was a military conflict between two coalitions led by the Roman Republic and the Seleucid Empire. The fighting ended with a clear Roman victory. In the Treaty of Apamea, the Seleucids were forced to give up Asia Minor, which fell to Roman allies.

January 191 BC: Seleucid Invasion of Greece up to the Thermopylae.

January 189 BC: After the defeat of Antiochus III in 190 BC they were included among the provinces annexed by the Romans to the dominions of Eumenes of Pergamum.

January 189 BC: Probably not ocntrolled anymore by the seleucids when armenia was created.

34.1.Treaty of Apamea

Was a peace treaty conducted in 188 BC between the Roman Republic and Antiochus III, ruler of the Seleucid Empire. It ended the Roman-Seleucid War.

January 187 BC: The Romans sent an army to Greece which defeated Antiochus' army at Thermopylae. This defeat proved crushing, and the Seleucids were forced to retreat from Greece.

35. Galatian War

Was a war between the Galatian Gauls and the Roman Republic supported by their allies Pergamon in 189 BC.

January 188 BC: The Romans turned their attention to the Celtic tribes of the Galatians settled in Galatia and defeated them in a battle on Mount Olympus, where the entire Galatian army was annihilated.

February 188 BC: The Roman army leaves Mount Olympus.

36. War between Greek Bactria and Parthia

The war waged by Parthian ruler Mithridates against the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom leading to the Parthian conquest of Bactria's territory west of the Arius river.

January 166 BC: Mithridates first expanded Parthia's control eastward by defeating King Eucratides of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. This gave Parthia control over Bactria's territory west of the Arius river, the regions of Margiana and Aria (including the city of Herat in 167 BC).

37. Maccabean Revolt

Was a Jewish rebellion, lasting from 167 to 160 BCE, agains the Seleucid Kingdom.

January 159 BC: The Hasmonean Kingdom becomes de facto indipendant.

38. Expansion of the Hasmonean Kingdom

Were a series of military campaigns (against the Seleucid Kingdom and the Nabateans) by the Hasmonean Kings to expand their territory.

38.1.Conquest of Jonathan

Military campaigns of Hasmonean King Jonathan.

January 146 BC: Conquests of Jonathan (Hasmonean Kingdom).

38.2.Conquests of Simon

Military campaigns of Hasmonean King Simon.

January 138 BC: Conquests of Simon (Hasmonean Kingdom).

38.3.Conquests of Hyrcanus

Military campaigns of Hasmonean King Hyrcanus I.

January 109 BC: Conquests of Hyrcanus (Hasmonean Kingdom).

38.4.Conquests of Aristobulus

Military campaigns of Hasmonean King Aristobulus.

January 102 BC: Conquests of Aristobulus (Hasmonean Kingdom).

38.5.Conquests of Alexander Jannaeus

Military campaigns of Hasmonean King Alexander Jannaeus.

January 95 BC: Conquests of Alexander Jannaeus (Hasmonean Kingdom) by 96 BC.

38.6.Battle of Gadara

Was a battle between the Hasmoneans and the Nabataeans in 93 BC.

January 92 BC: The Hasmoneans lost the territories acquired in Transjordan during the 93 BC Battle of Gadara, where the Nabataeans ambushed Jannaeus and his forces in a hilly area. The Nabataeans saw the acquisitions as a threat to their interests, and used a large number of camels in the form of a bulldozer to push the Hasmonean forces into a deep valley where Jannaeus was "lucky to escape alive". Jannaeus returned to fierce Jewish opposition in Jerusalem after his defeat, and had to cede the acquired territories to the Nabataeans so that he could dissuade them from supporting his opponents in Judea.

39. Dynastic Wars of the Seleucids

Were a series of wars of succession that were fought between competing branches of the Seleucid royal household for control of the Seleucid Empire.

January 144 BC: Alexander Balas reigned until 145 BC when he was overthrown by Demetrius I's son, Demetrius II Nicator. Demetrius II proved unable to control the whole of the kingdom, however. While he ruled Babylonia and eastern Syria from Damascus, the remnants of Balas' supporters - first supporting Balas' son Antiochus VI, then the usurping general Diodotus Tryphon - held out in Antioch.

January 138 BC: Parthian expansion continued as well. In 139 BC, Demetrius II was defeated in battle by the Parthians and was captured. By this time, the entire Iranian Plateau had been lost to Parthian control.

39.1.Secession of Molon

Was the rebellion of Seleucid General Molon in the Satrapies of Persia and Media.

January 221 BC: Molon, governor general of the higher Seleucid satrapies (including Persia and Media) revolted. Molon forced the strategists of the royal army into retirement by occupying the country east of the Tigris. King Antiochos sent only a mercenary strategist named Xenoitas against him who get beaten.

39.1.1.Defeat of Molon

Rebel Seleucid General Molon was defeated.

January 220 BC: Antiochos found himself in a difficult situation, having to deal with this uprising while trying in vain to reconquer Coele-Syria from Ptolemy III. The king ends up deciding to go to the East himself on the advice of Epigenes. The campaign is conducted relatively effectively as Molon is defeated and commits suicide.

39.2.Timarchus Usurpation

Revolt of the Satrap of the Seleucid Kingdom Timarchus in the Persian east.

January 162 BC: Timarchus was a usurper in the Seleucid empire between 163-160 BC who managed to extend his realm into Babylonia (162 BC), where records of his reign were inscribed into the astronomical calendars.

January 159 BC: Timarchus' forces were however not enough for the legal Seleucid king: Demetrius defeated and killed Timarchus in 160 BC, and the Seleucid empire was temporarily united again.

40. Parthian conquests in southern Persia

Military campaigns of Mithridates I of Parthia in Elymais and Characene.

January 139 BC: While Mithridates retired to Hyrcania, his forces subdued the kingdoms of Elymais and Characene and occupied Susa.

41. Campaigns of Tigranes the Great

Military conquests of Armenian King Tigranes the Great.

January 87 BC: Upon the death of Mithridates II of Parthia, in 88 BC, Tigranes took advantage of the confusion of his ally, to reappropriate the lands ceded as a ransom and to further expand his kingdom with the annexation of Gordiene and part of Mesopotamia.

January 87 BC: Tigranes II of Armenia, also known as Tigranes the Great, was a powerful Armenian king who expanded his kingdom to include Atropatene in -88. This territory was previously a vassal of the Parthian Empire. Tigranes II was known for his military conquests and for establishing a strong Armenian empire in the region.

41.1.Armenian-Parthian War

Military campaign of Armenian King Tigranes the Great against the kingdoms of Osroene and Atropatene.

January 84 BC: The armies of Tigranes the Great victoriously entered Northern Mesopotamia and the kingdoms of Osroene and Atropatene pledged their loyalty and support to Tigranes the Great.

41.2.Armenian Occupation of Syria

Military campaign of Armenian King Tigranes the Great to conquer the Seleucid Kingdom, which at the time was reduced mainly to Syria.

January 82 BC: In 83 BC, after bloody strife for the throne of Syria, governed by the Seleucids, the Syrians decided to choose Tigranes as the protector of their kingdom and offered him the crown of Syria. Magadates was appointed as his governor in Antioch. He then conquered Phoenicia and Cilicia, effectively putting an end to the last remnants of the Seleucid Empire.

42. Battle of Cana

Was fought between Greek Seleucid under king Antiochus XII Dionysus of Syria, and the Arab Nabataean Kingdom.

January 83 BC: The battle of Cana was fought between Greek Seleucid under king Antiochus XII Dionysus of Syria, and the Arab Nabataean Kingdom. Antiochus was slain during the combat and the battle became a decisive Nabataean victory and demoralized army fled and perished from starvation in the desert afterwards.

February 83 BC: The battle of Cana was fought between Greek Seleucid under king Antiochus XII Dionysus of Syria, and the Arab Nabataean Kingdom. Antiochus was slain during the combat and the battle became a decisive Nabataean victory and demoralized army fled and perished from starvation in the desert afterwards.

43. Restoration of the Seleucids

Following the Roman general Lucullus' defeat of both Mithridates and Tigranes in 69 BC, a rump Seleucid kingdom was restored under Antiochus XIII.

January 68 BC: Following the Roman general Lucullus' defeat of both Mithridates and Tigranes in 69 BC, a rump Seleucid kingdom was restored under Antiochus XIII.

January 62 BC: Even so, civil wars could not be prevented, as another Seleucid, Philip II, contested rule with Antiochus. After the Roman conquest of Pontus, the Romans became increasingly alarmed at the constant source of instability in Syria under the Seleucids. Once Mithridates was defeated by Pompey in 63 BC, Pompey set about the task of remaking the Hellenistic East, by creating new client kingdoms and establishing provinces. While client nations like Armenia and Judea were allowed to continue with some degree of autonomy under local kings, Pompey saw the Seleucids as too troublesome to continue. Doing away with both rival Seleucid princes, he made Syria into a Roman province.

44. Mithridatic Wars

Were three conflicts fought by Rome against the Kingdom of Pontus and its allies between 88 BC and 63 BC. They are named after Mithridates VI, the King of Pontus during the course of the wars.

44.1.Third Mithridatic War

Was the last and longest of the three Mithridatic Wars, fought between Mithridates VI of Pontus and the Roman Republic. The conflict ended in defeat for Mithridates, ending the Pontic Kingdom, ending the Seleucid Empire (by then a rump state), and also resulting in the Kingdom of Armenia becoming an allied client state of Rome.

January 65 BC: Border corrections due to military occupations and reorganization.

January 65 BC: Pompey passed through the Taurus Mountains and waged war both against Antiochus I of Commagene, forcing him to seek peace, and against Darius of Media, whom he put to flight because he had aided Antiochus or Tigranes before him.

January 65 BC: Armenia came under the Ancient Roman sphere of influence in 66 BC, after the battle of Tigranocerta and the final defeat of Armenia's ally.

January 65 BC: To Ariobarzanes, Pompeus gave back, once again, Cappadocia, now adding Sophene and Gordiene, as well as the city of Ierapolis Castabala and others of Cilicia.

January 63 BC: Around 64 BC, the Roman General and Triumvir, Pompey had reorganised Syria and the surrounding countries into Roman provinces. Pompey had installed client kings in the region, who would become allies of Rome. Among these was Sampsiceramus I of the Emesene Dynasty.

44.1.1.Military Campaign of Pompey in Cilicia

Was a succesful Roman military campaign led by Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus in Cilicia during the Third Mithridatic War.

January 66 BC: Cilicia proper (Trachea and Pedias), which had been a hideout for pirates for over forty years, was subjugated by Rome.

45. Pontic War

Was a military campaign waged by Julius Caesar (at the same time of his war against Pompeius) that lead to the Roman submission of the Kingdom of Pontus.

January 47 BC: Pharnace of Pontus moved to the southeast along the Black Sea coast and without difficulty subjugated Colchis and all of Armenia.

August 47 BC: Caesar decisively defeated Pharnaces of Pontus at the Battle of Zela. Pharnaces was killed and Caesar conquered Pontus. In addition, the territories occupied by Pharnaces were freed.

46. Iberian-Armenian War

Was a war between the ancient Kingdoms of Iberia and Armenia.

January 56: After 2 years of war, the Armenian nobility revolted and replaced Rhadamistus with the Arsacid prince Tiridates. Armenia becomed de facto a protectorate of Parthia.

47. Roman Withdrew from Middle Eastern Territories

After Trajan's death, his successor Hadrian withdrew from the territories of Armenia, Assyria and Mesopotamia, allowing the return of their respective client monarchies.

January 119: Hadrian was the Roman Emperor at the time, and the client monarchies in question were likely rulers appointed by the Parthian Empire to govern the territories of Armenia, Assyria, and Mesopotamia. The withdrawal of Hadrian allowed these monarchies to regain control of their territories.

48. Roman-Persian Wars

Were a series of Wars between Rome (first the Roman Republic then the Roman Empire and finally the Eastern Roman Empire) and Persia (the Parthian Empire, and then its successor, the Sasanian Empire). The wars were ended by the early Muslim conquests, which led to the fall of the Sasanian Empire and huge territorial losses for the Byzantine Empire.

January 287: According to Armenian sources, in the third year of the reign of Diocletian Tiridates was invested with the kingdom of Armenia. Diocletian's panegyric attests in that same year to a treaty between Diocletian and Persia, in which the Persian king Bahram II presumably recognized Tiridates III as king of Armenia. The gifts received by Bahram II were interpreted as symbols of a Roman victory over the Sassanids.

January 294: Also due to a civil war in Persia, the rebels of Tiridates managed not only to free Armenia from the Persian yoke but also to penetrate Assyria. However, when the civil war ended, the new shah Narses was able to regain control of Armenia with a successful military campaign. Again Tiridates lost his throne and fled back to Roman territory.

January 348: The treaty of Nisibis stipulated the reestablishment of the Roman protectorate over Caucasian Iberia and Albania. But fifty years later Rome lost the area that since then remained an integral part of the Sasanian Empire.

January 523: In 521/522 Kavad lost control of Lazica, whose rulers switched their allegiance to the Romans.

January 542: Sasanian general Cosroe digged a tunnel that allowed his army to reach under a tower of the Petra and set it on fire. With part of its defenses destroyed, the city surrendered to the Sasanians who entered triumphantly (541).

January 542: Revolt in Lazica against the Byzantines, Gubazes II asks for help from the Persians. Persia successfully invades Lazica.

January 550: Persian protectorate over the region was established. However, the Shah of Persia's attempt to directly control the region and the missionary zeal of the Zoroastrian priests soon caused the discontent of the Christian population of Lazica. Gubazes revolted against Persian rule and asked Justinian for help, begging forgiveness for their previous quarrels which had caused Lazica to fall into Persian hands. The Lazi who crossed the river defeated the 1,000 Persian soldiers sent in advance and subsequently attacked their camp while they were still sleeping causing them to flee.

48.1.Crassous' Campaign in Syria

Was a Roman military invasion of Parthia under Marcus Licinius Crassus that ended in a catastrophic defeat of the Romans.

June 53 BC: Crassus, a Roman general and politician, decided to enter enemy territory from the south through the Syrian desert in -53. This decision ultimately led to his defeat and death at the hands of the Parthians in the Battle of Carrhae.

June 53 BC: The battle of Carre was fought between the Roman forces led by Crassus and the Parthian Empire led by Surena. It resulted in a devastating defeat for the Romans, with Crassus himself being killed in the battle. This defeat marked the end of Roman expansion in the East.

48.2.Antony's Atropatene campaign

Was a military campaign by Mark Antony, the eastern triumvir of the Roman Republic, against the Parthian Empire under Phraates IV.

January 38 BC: After Syria was occupied by Pacorus' army, Labienus split from the main Parthian force to invade Anatolia while Pacorus and his commander Barzapharnes invaded the Roman Levant. They subdued all settlements along the Mediterranean coast as far south as Ptolemais (modern Acre, Israel), with the lone exception of Tyre.

February 38 BC: Despite these successes, the Parthians were soon driven out of the Levant by a Roman counteroffensive. Publius Ventidius Bassus, an officer under Mark Antony, defeated and then executed Labienus at the Battle of the Cilician Gates (in modern Mersin Province, Turkey) in 39 BC. Shortly afterward, a Parthian force in Syria led by general Pharnapates was defeated by Ventidius at the Battle of Amanus Pass.

48.2.1.Persian Invasion (Antony's Atropatene campaign)

Was the Persian invasion of the Roman Republic during Mark Antony's Parthian War.

March 40 BC: The Parthians conquered Syria (with the exception of Tyre), and Anatolia up to Caria including Cappadocia, Commagene and Galatia

March 40 BC: The Liberatores were defeated by the Triumvirs at the Battle of Philippi in October 42 BC.

March 40 BC: While Mark Antony was staying in Alexandria, the situation in the Eastern Roman provinces had worsened. Urged by the local potentates dethroned by the triumvir to invade Syria and Asia, the Parthians had decided to go on the attack. In February 40 BC. the Parthian army led by Quintus Labienus and Pacorus, the son of King Orodes II, crossed the Euphrates and attacked Apamea.

January 39 BC: A Parthian army led by Pacorus, son the Parthian king, invaded Palestine and reached Jerusalem.

48.2.2.Roman Counterattack

Was a Roman offensive against the Persian invasion during Mark Antony's Parthian War.

August 39 BC: The Parthians, outnumbered and taken by surprise, were heavily defeated at the Battle of Monte Amano, General Franapate himself was killed and the survivors fell back en route east of the Euphrates after abandoning all invaded territories.

September 39 BC: Publio Ventidio Basso, a character of obscure origins but of considerable military ability, obtained important victories. In August 39 BC. he marched rapidly against Quintus Labienus who, surprised by the arrival of the legions, beat a hasty retreat. The Roman army of Ventidius pursued him as far as Syria where the Parthian cavalry was pouring in to reinforce it.

June 38 BC: In the spring of 38 BC. the Parthians attempted to take their revenge and a large army, personally led by Pacorus, crossed the Euphrates and again invaded the Roman province of Syria.

August 38 BC: The battle of Monte Gindaro, fought according to tradition on 9 August 38 BC. anniversary of the Carre catastrophe, ended with a great victory for Ventidio Basso.

48.2.3.Anthony's Invasion

Was the Roman invasion of Persia during Mark Antony's Parthian War.

January 36 BC: The Herodian kingdom of Judea was a client state of the Roman Republic from 37 BC, when Herod the Great was appointed "King of the Jews" by the Roman Senate.

September 36 BC: Marco Antonio then immediately marched with the legions and, after a forced march of four hundred kilometers, reached Phraaspa at the end of August without encountering much resistance.

October 36 BC: As his legionaries were tired and begged to return home, at the end of October, Mark Anthony decided to end the war with Persia.

48.3.Roman-Parthian War of 58-63

Was a war fought between the Roman Empire and the Parthian Empire over control of Armenia.

January 59: Fall of Artaxata.

January 60: Fall of Tigranocerta.

February 60: Shortly afterwards Corbulo decided to complete the submission of the newly conquered territories with a whole series of punitive expeditions against the regions still loyal to Tiridates. Some parts of Western Armenia were also ceded to Roman vassals. The definitive conquest of Armenia was celebrated by Nero who was hailed as imperator for the sixth time, while a Romanized prince, a trusted "client", was placed on the throne of Armenia.

December 62: The Parthians turned their attention to Armenia, and after two years of inconclusive campaigns, inflicted a heavy defeat on the Romans at the Battle of Rhandeia. The conflict ended soon after, with a formal compromise: a Parthian prince of the Arsacid dynasty would be installed on the Armenian throne, but his appointment had to be approved by the Roman Emperor.

48.4.Trajan's Parthian Campaign

Was a military campaign by Roman Emperor Trajan in 115 against the Parthian Empire in Mesopotamia.

January 115: Trajan marched first on Armenia, deposed the Parthian-appointed king and annexed it to the Roman Empire as a province.

January 116: With the beginning of the new war year, the Roman armies crossed the Euphrates from Syria, descended the River Tigris from the Armenian highlands and headed south against Parthia itself. Leaving garrisons in suitable places, Trajan reached Edessa, where he met Abgar VII, king of Osroene, for the first time.

January 116: The Roman armies crossed the Euphrates from Syria, descended the River Tigris from the Armenian highlands and headed south against Parthia itself. Leaving garrisons in suitable places, Emperor Trajan reached Edessa, where he met Abgar VII, king of Osroene, who submitted to Rome.

January 117: Characene conquered by Roman Empire.

January 117: The Roman commander, having a large abundance of ships and soldiers at his disposal, still managed to cross the river, then taking possession of the whole of Adiabene.

January 117: After these successes, the Roman Emperor Trajan continued his advance and took possession of Babylon in 116 AD. Trajan visited the palace where Alexander the Great had died, highlighting the historical significance of the city as a major conquest for the Roman Empire.

January 117: Roman Emperor Trajan crossed the Tigris and entered Ctesiphon.

January 117: At the end of this military campaign, Trajan decided to annex the new territories by creating the two new provinces of Mesopotamia and Assyria. Indeed, if Trajan's establishment of the provinces of Armenia and Mesopotamia is confirmed by the coinage of the period, the actual creation of the province of Assyria is more doubtful.

January 119: After the death of Trajan, Hadrian preferred to restore the imperial borders back to the Euphrates river.

48.5.Roman-Parthian War of 161-166

Was a war fought between the Roman and Parthian Empires over Armenia and Upper Mesopotamia.

December 161: In fact, the change at the top of the Roman Empire seems to have encouraged Vologeses IV of Partia to make the first move in late summer or early autumn 161, attacking the Kingdom of Armenia, an ally of the Roman Empire and installing a puppet king of his liking, Pacorus III, an arsacid like him.

January 162: The Parthians attacked the entire frontier of Cappadocia and Syria, defeated many of the local garrisons, bringing destruction even under the walls of Antioch and captured the border fortress of Edessa.

January 164: Roman occupation of Dausara and Nicephorium.

January 164: The legions I Minervia and V Macedonica, under the command of the legates Marcus Claudius Fronto and Publius Marzio Verus, who served under Marcus Statius Priscus, achieved numerous military successes, penetrating deeply into Armenia, and inflicted a heavy defeat on the Parthians, conquering the Armenian capital , Artaxata.

January 164: In 163, the Parthians intervened in Osroene, a client state of the Romans located in Mesopotamia, east of Syria, with the capital Edessa. They deposed the Roman client king, Mannus, and replaced him with their own client king.

January 165: In 164 AD, Pacorus, the Parthian ruler of Armenia, was deposed. The former Roman consul of Emesa, Gaius Julius Soemus, who had been deposed by Vologeses, was then crowned as the new tributary king of Armenia under Roman rule.

January 166: Avidius Cassius reached the twin metropolises of Mesopotamia: Seleucia on the right bank of the Tigris and Ctesiphon on the left. Ctesiphon was taken and its royal palace burned. The citizens of Seleucia opened the gates to the invaders, but the city was burned anyway, leaving a shadow on the conduct of Cassio and the reputation of Lucio Vero.

January 166: Avidio Cassio was a Roman general who served as the legatus legionis of legio III Gallica. Dura Europos was a strategic city located on the Euphrates River. The battle fought near Dura Europos in 165 AD was significant in the Roman Empire's campaign in the region.

January 166: In 165 AD, the Roman forces, led by Emperor Lucius Verus and his generals, launched a military campaign in the East. They used a pincer movement strategy to capture strategic fortress-cities along the Euphrates, including Dausara, Edessa, Carrhae, and Nisibis, expanding the Roman Empire's territory.

January 166: In 165 AD, the city of Edessa in Osroene was reoccupied by the Roman client king Manno. This event marked the reinstatement of Manno as the ruler of Osroene under Roman authority.

January 167: Avidius Cassius was a Roman general and usurper who invaded the territory of the Medes, located beyond the Tigris River, in 166 AD. This demonstrated the military might of the Roman Empire under his command.

January 168: The Nisibis area remained part of the roman empire.

January 168: The plague, which broke out during the last year of the campaign, however forced the Romans to withdraw from the newly conquered territories.

48.6.Military Campaigns in Parthia by Septmius Severus

Was a military campaign by Roman Emperor Septimius Severus against the Parthian Empire.

January 198: The Siege of Nisibis in 197 AD was led by the Parthian Empire against the Roman forces defending the city.

January 198: Severus, having built a fleet, traveled the Euphrates with extremely fast ships, where he first reached Dura Europos, continued to Seleucia which he occupied, after putting to flight the cataphract cavalry of the Parthians. The advance continued with the capture of Babylon which shortly before had been abandoned by the enemy forces and, towards the end of the year, also the capital of the Parthians, Ctesiphon, was placed under siege. The city, now surrounded, tried in vain to resist.

February 198: The king of the Parthians, Vologases V, having learned that Severus was approaching Nisibis, decided to leave.

February 198: The king of the Parthians, Vologases V, decided to leave Nisibis upon learning that the Roman Emperor Severus was approaching in 198 AD. Nisibis was part of the territory of Osroene, a Roman client state at the time.

April 198: In 198 AD, Roman Emperor Septimius Severus spent the winter near the Parthian capital of Ctesiphon. In February-March, he decided to travel up the Tigris River to return to the Roman borders, after successfully securing all occupied regions except for northern Mesopotamia.

April 198: In 198 AD, Emperor Septimius Severus spent the winter near the Parthian capital before deciding to return to the Roman borders by traveling up the Tigris River around February-March.

48.7.Military Campaigns in Parthia by Caracalla

Was a military campaign by Roman Emperor Caracalla against the Parthian Empire.

January 217: Emperor Caracalla invaded the Parthian Empire in 216 using an abortive wedding proposal to the Parthian king's daughter as a casus belli. His forces carried out a campaign of massacres in the northern regions of the Parthian Empire.

February 217: Emperor Caracalla invaded the Parthian Empire in 216 using an abortive wedding proposal to the Parthian king's daughter as a casus belli. His forces carried out a campaign of massacres in the northern regions of the Parthian Empire.

48.8.Mesopotamian Campaign of Ardashir I

Was a military campaign by Sassanid King Ardashir I against the Roman Empire.

January 231: The Sassanid armies, led by King Ardashir I, invaded Roman Mesopotamia in 230. They besieged Roman garrisons along the Euphrates and attempted to conquer Nisibis, but were ultimately unsuccessful in their efforts.

February 231: In 231 AD, the Sassanid armies, led by King Ardashir I, advanced into Roman Mesopotamia and besieged Roman garrisons along the Euphrates. They also attempted to conquer the city of Nisibis, but were ultimately unsuccessful in their efforts.

January 239: It seems that during the reign of Maximinus the Thrax, the cities of the Roman province of Mesopotamia, Nisibis and Carrhae, were besieged and occupied by the Sassanids.

January 240: Sasanid conquest of Dura Europos.

February 240: Sasanid conquest of Dura Europos.

January 241: Sasanian ruler Ardashir I finally managed to conquer and destroy the important stronghold city of Hatra, then occupying a large part of Roman Mesopotamia (including the legionary fortresses of Resaina and Singara, as well as the auxiliary fort of Zagurae, today's Ain Sinu), perhaps even arriving to besiege and occupy Antioch of Syria itself, as the fact that its mint stopped minting for the years 240 and 241 seems to suggest.

January 241: Hatra is besieged by the Sasanian Empire.

January 241: Sassanians occupied Caucasian Albanian around 240 AD.

May 241: Capture of Hatra by the Sasanians.

January 243: In the 3rd century, Ardashir I, marched on Oman and Bahrain, where he defeated Sanatruq the ruler of Bahrain.

48.9.Sasanid Campaign of Alexander Severus

Was a military campaign by Roman Emperor Severus Alexander against the Sasanian Empire.

January 233: Roman Emperor Alexander Severus invaded Persia with various, occupying the Euphrates region (but not Seleucia and Ctesifon) and Media.

February 233: Roman Emperor Alexander Severus invaded Persia with various, occupying the Euphrates region (but not Seleucia and Ctesifon) and Media.

48.10.Sasanid Campaing of Jordan III

Was a military campaign by Roman Emperor Gordian III against the Sasanian Empire.

January 244: Arrived in Antioch (perhaps at the end of the previous year), which it seems he reconquered after falling into the hands of Shapur I, he crossed the Euphrates, repeatedly defeating the Persians, taking from them Carre, Nisibis and Singara (so much so that all three of these cities returned to mint Roman coins), then defeating them in the battle of Resena.

January 245: Roman retreat from the Persian territories of south-central Mesopotamia. In fact, the Sassanids did not conquer any other cities, besides Hatra, and Sapor did not undertake further military initiatives for the next eight years.

48.11.Military Campaigns of Shapur I in Syria and Mesopotamia

Was a military campaign by Sassanid King Shapur I against the Roman Empire.

November 252: Towards the end of 252, Sapor I resumed a violent offensive against the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire. The Persian troops occupied numerous cities in the province of Mesopotamia (including Nisibis itself), then pushed into Cappadocia, Licaonia and Syria, where they defeated the Roman army rushing to Barbalissos and took possession of Antioch itself.

January 253: Around 252, during the reign of Trebonianus Gallus, King Chosroes II of Armenia was killed at the instigation of the Sassanids. The Armenian Kingdom therefore became a Persian protectorate, while his Chosroes' son Tiridates found refuge with the Romans.

January 255: At the end of this new Sasanian incursion, the emperor Valerian was forced to intervene, managing to reconquer the capital of Syria, Antioch, that same year (253) or the following year (254).

January 257: In 256 the armies of Sasanian Shah Shapur I removed important strongholds from Roman rule in Syria, including Dura Europos.

January 261: Iberia became a tributary of the Sasanian state during the reign of Shapur I (241-272).

January 261: The capture of Valerian by the Persians left the Roman East at the mercy of Sapor I, who led a new offensive from his headquarters in Nisibis (occupied in 252 by the Sasanian army), managing to occupy the Roman territories up to Tarsus ( in Cilicia), Antioch (in Syria) and Caesarea (in Cappadocia).

48.12.Sasanian Campaign of Odaenathus

Was a military campaign by Palmyrene King Odaenathus against the Sasanian Empire.

January 261: Margiana was formally annexed by Sasanian ruler Shapur I in c. 260 AD.

February 261: The praetorian prefect, Ballista, managed to surprise the Persians near Corycus in Cilicia and push them back as far as the Euphrates.

January 264: In 263, the Roman Emperor Valerian defeated the Persian King Sapor I near the Persian capital of Ctesiphon. This victory marked a significant moment in the ongoing conflict between the Roman Empire and the Persian Empire.

February 264: Roman Emperor Odenathus defeated the Sasanian Emperor Shapur I near the capital of the Sasanian Empire, Ctesiphon, in 264

January 265: Odaenathus was a Palmyrene prince and Roman client king who led military campaigns against the Sassanian Persians. Ctesiphon was the capital of the Persian Empire at the time. The Roman Empire gained control of the territory after Odaenathus's successful campaigns.

February 265: Odaenathus was a Palmyrene prince and Roman client king who led military campaigns against the Sasanian Empire. Ctesiphon was the capital of the Sasanian Empire at the time. His second campaign likely took place in 265.

48.13.Sasanian Campaign of Carus and Numerian

Was a military campaign by Roman Emperors Carus and Numerian against the Sasanian Empire.

January 284: The surviving sources do not allow for a detailed or accurate reconstruction of Carus' military campaign against the Sassanids. They laconically report that the emperor devastated Mesopotamia, taking possession of the cities of Seleucia and Ctesiphon, and bringing the Roman army beyond the Tigris.

April 284: For unclear reasons the Romans withdrew from Persia.

48.14.Sasanian Campaign of Galerius

Was a military campaign by Roman Emperor Galerius against the Sasanian Empire.

January 297: Narses, to punish the Romans for supporting the Armenian revolt, invaded the Roman province of Syria.

January 298: After two battles with uncertain outcome, the third battle (fought between Carre and Nicephorium or Callinicum) was a complete defeat for the Romans, following which Rome lost the province of Mesopotamia.

January 299: Diocletian assembled a cover army in Syria, ready to go into action in an emergency. Taking advantage of the advantage, he took the city of Ctesiphon.

January 299: Galerius, advancing through the mountains of Armenia, won a decisive victory over the Sasanian king Narses.

January 299: In the Peace of Nisibis while the Roman empire obtained control of Caucasian Iberia becomes again a vassal state.

January 313: Persian king Shapur II invaded Osroene.

February 313: The Romans conquer Osroene back from the Persians.

48.14.1.Peace Treaty of Diocletian with the Sasanian Empire

Was a peace treaty between the Roman Empire under Diocletian (in the East) and the Sasanian Empire.

January 300: Diocletian and Galerius, after meeting in Nisibis, sent Sicorio Probus, one of their secretaries, to communicate the conditions for peace to the Persians. When the day of the audience finally arrived, Probus communicated the conditions for peace to the Shah: Armenia and Iberia became client kingdoms of the Romans; the border between the two empires is fixed on the Tigris river while the border between Armenia and Persia is fixed near Zintha, a fortress of Media on the border with Armenia; The Persians cede five regions beyond the Tigris. According to Peter Patrick, these were Intelene, Sophene, Arzanene, Zabdicene and Carduene. According to Ammianus Marcellinus, however, the five regions ceded would have been Zabdicene, Arzanene, Moxoene, Carduene and Rehimene. Narses only opposed the first point, which however he was forced to accept in the face of the firmness of the Romans. After the treaty was made, relatives who had been taken captive by the Romans were returned to Narses.

48.15.Military Campaigns of Shapur II in Syria and Mesopotamia

Was a military campaign by Sassanid King Shapur II against the Roman Empire.

January 335: In 334 the Armenian king was taken prisoner by Sapor II and taken to Persia, forcing the Armenians to invoke the help of Constantine I.

January 337: The son of the Sasanian king, Narses, managed to advance as far as Amida and occupy the Roman city.

February 337: Amida returned under Roman control.

January 338: It seems that during the year (probably shortly after the death of Constantine on May 22), the Armenians revolted against the Sasanid domain, driving them out of their territories.

January 360: Battle of Amida.

January 361: Constantius decided that the war against the Sasanians took precedence over Julian's rebellion, and in the spring of 360 he began his own eastern campaign, occupying Edessa.

January 361: In 360 Sapor took the eastern fortresses of Singara and Bezabde.

48.16.Sasanian Campaign of Julian

Was a military campaign by Roman Emperor Julian against the Sasanian Empire.

June 363: Roman Emperor Julian conquered Seleucia and visited its ruins.

June 363: The battle of Maranga in 363 was fought between the Roman army led by Emperor Julian and the Persian army of Sapor II. The Roman emperor Julian died during this battle, leading to the territory of Maranga falling under the control of the Roman Empire.

June 363: The Romans, led by Emperor Julian, entered Dura Europos, a city located in modern-day Syria. The city had been abandoned for years after being captured by the Sassanid Empire. Julian's conquest was part of his campaign against the Sassanids during his short reign as Roman Emperor.

June 363: After passing the fields flooded by the retreating Persians, Emperor Julian set fire to Birtha, while his troops breached the fortifications of Maiozamalcha. This event took place during the Roman-Persian Wars, with Julian leading the Roman Empire against the Sassanian Empire.

June 363: Anatha conquered by Roman Empire.

June 363: After passing Macepracta, the Roman Emperor Julian and his army arrived in front of Pirisabora, a city in Mesopotamia. They besieged the city, which was eventually surrendered, looted, and burned down in 363 AD.

48.16.1.Perso-Roman Peace Treaty of 363

Was a peace treaty between the Romans and Sasanians in 363 AD.

January 364: In 363, the Roman Emperor Jovian had to cede the territory of Corduene to the Sasanian king Shapur II as part of a peace treaty following the Roman defeat at the Battle of Ctesiphon. This marked a significant loss for the Roman Empire in the region.

January 364: In 363, the Roman Emperor Jovian had to cede the territory of Corduene to the Sasanian king Shapur II. Jovian was a Roman Emperor who ruled from 363 to 364, while Shapur II was the king of the Sasanian Empire from 309 to 379.

January 364: Armenia becomes again a Sasanian protectorate.

January 364: After the emperor Julian was slain during his failed campaign in Persia in 363, Rome ceded control of Iberia to Persia.

48.17.Partition of Armenia (370)

Division of Armenia between the Romans and the Persians.

January 370: Valente sent the general Arinteo to restore Pope to the Armenian throne already the summer following the first action against the Goths (in 369?), also at the request of the Armenian nobility itself.

February 370: Sapor invaded Armenia.

January 371: Pope again managed to escape and was reinstated by the Romans escorted by a much larger force in 370.

48.18.Partition of Armenia (385)

Division of Armenia between the Romans and the Persians.

January 385: In 384, the kingdom of Armenia was divided into two regions: the western one was placed, as a protectorate, under the Eastern Roman Empire, while the eastern one was entrusted to the Persians. The western region became a province of the Roman Empire with the name of Armenia Minor, while the eastern part remained an independent kingdom, even if only formally, under Persian control.

48.19.Partition of Armenia (429)

Division of Armenia between the Romans and the Persians.

January 429: In 428 the Sasanids deposed the legitimate ruler by establishing their own dynasty.

48.20.Anastasian War

Was a war between the Eastern Roman Empire and the Sasanian Empire.

September 502: In August 502, King Kavad I of the Sasanian Empire easily captured the unprepared city of Theodosiopolis, which was a key Byzantine stronghold located in modern-day Turkey. The conquest marked a significant victory for the Sasanians in their ongoing conflict with the Byzantine Empire.

July 503: Siege of the important Roman border fortress of Amida. The defenders, although receiving no reinforcements, repulsed the Persian assaults for three months, proving to be a far more difficult target than the Sasanian ruler anticipated, but they finally gave way and the city fell.

September 503: Between August and September the Romans were besieged in Edessa by Kavad I.

October 503: During the year 503, the city of Edessa was besieged by Kavad I, the Sassanid King of Persia. The siege took place between August and September, with the territory eventually falling under the control of the Eastern Roman Empire.

January 507: A peace treaty signed in November 506 by the Eastern Roman Empire and the Sasanian Empire ended the Anastasian War. With the treaty, the contenders agreed to restore the status quo ante bellum.

48.21.Iberian War

Was a war between the Eastern Roman Empire and the Sasanian Empire over the eastern Georgian kingdom of Iberia - a Sasanian client state that had defected to the Byzantines.

January 526: Iberia, a Sasanian client state, defected to the Byzantines.

January 528: By 527 the Iberian revolt had been crushed.

January 528: In 527, the Eastern Roman Empire, under the rule of Emperor Justinian I, occupied two forts in Persarmenia, Bolon and Farangion. This was part of Justinian's efforts to expand and strengthen the empire's borders in the region.

January 529: In 528 the Persians used the conquered bases in Iberia to penetrate eastern Lazica.

48.21.1.Ethernal Peace (Byzantine-Sasanian Treaty)

Was a peace treaty between the Byzantine Empire and the Sasanian Empire that ended the Iberian War.

January 533: Eternal peace was signed in 532 and the Romans had to return the fortresses of Bolon and Faragion to Persia.

January 533: The Sasanian Persians recognized Lazica as a dependent state of Byzantium in the Eternal Peace of 532.

48.22.Lazic War

Was a war fought between the Eastern Roman Empire and the Sasanian Empire for control of the ancient Georgian region of Lazica.

January 552: The Byzantine commander Bessa put down a pro-Persian revolt by the Abasgoi tribe and took Petra.

January 552: The Sasanids conquered lazica.

September 556: In 556, the Eastern Roman Empire's allies, led by the Byzantine general Bessas, successfully recaptured Archaeopolis from the Persians. They also defeated the Persian general Nachoragan at Phasis, securing control of the territory for the Eastern Roman Empire.

January 557: In 556, the Byzantines, led by General Martin, successfully suppressed a rebellion by the Misimiani tribe in Lazica. This victory allowed them to drive out the Persians from the region, consolidating their control over Lazica.

48.23.Byzantine-Sasanian War of 572-591

Was a war fought between the Sasanian Empire of Persia and the Eastern Roman Empire. It was triggered by pro-Byzantine revolts in areas of the Caucasus under Persian hegemony.

April 572: Early in 572, the Armenians under Vardan II Mamikonian defeated the Persian governor of Armenia.

January 573: The Persians retook the city of Dvin.

February 573: The Sasanian Empire was captured by combined Armenian and Byzantine forces and direct hostilities between Byzantines and Persians began.

January 574: In 573, the Sassanid forces led by Khosrow I launched a successful counter-attack against the Byzantine Empire, capturing the city of Dara after a four-month siege. Khosrow I was the ruler of the Sassanid Empire from 531 to 579.

January 574: The Romans laid siege to Nisibis.

February 574: The abrupt dismissal of the byzantine general Marcian led to a disorderly retreat from Nisibis.

January 578: The Byzantines defeated the Persians at near Melitene and exploited their disarray by raiding deep into Caucasian Albania and Azerbaijan.

February 578: The Byzantines leave Caucasian Albania and Azerbaijan after a raid.

January 579: In 578, the Sasanian Empire, led by Adarmahan, launched a destructive military campaign in Roman Mesopotamia, causing significant damage to the region. This event marked a period of conflict between the Sasanians and the Romans in the area.

January 579: Corduene was a mountainous region located in present-day eastern Turkey and western Iran. Maurice I was the Byzantine Emperor from 582 to 602, known for his military campaigns and administrative reforms. The incorporation of Corduene into the Byzantine Empire was part of Maurice's efforts to expand and strengthen Byzantine territories.

February 579: The Persians, led by Adarmahan, launched a destructive military campaign in Roman Mesopotamia in 579. This led to significant losses for the Eastern Roman Empire in the region.

January 581: The Principality of Iberia was established shortly after the suppression of the Cosroid dynasty of the Kingdom of Iberia by Sasanian Persia, around 580.

January 590: Martyropolis, a city in the Byzantine Empire, fell to the Sasanian Empire in 589 due to the betrayal of the Byzantine officer Sittas. This event was part of the ongoing conflict between the two empires during the reign of Emperor Maurice.

April 591: Byzantine conquest of Dara.

September 591: At the Battle of Blarathon, near Ganzak, they decisively defeated Bahram, restoring Khosrow II to power and bringing the war to an end. Khosrow not only returned Dara and Martyropolis in exchange for Maurice's assistance, but also agreed to a new partition of the Caucasus by which the Sassanids handed over to the Byzantines many cities, including Tigranokert, Manzikert, Baguana, Valarsakert, Bagaran, Vardkesavan, Yerevan, Ani, Kars, and Zarisat. The western part of the Kingdom of Iberia, including the cities of Ardahan, Lori, Dmanisi, Lomsia, Mtskheta, and Tontio became Byzantine dependencies. Also, the city of Cytaea was given to Lazica, also a Byzantine dependency.

September 591: Persian Armenia was annexed directly to Persia.

September 591: Khosrow II gives the Byzantine Empire most of Persian Armenia.

48.24.Byzantine-Sasanian War of 602-628

Was the final and most devastating of the series of wars fought between the Roman Empire and the Sasanian Empire. The war was fought in Egypt, the Levant, Mesopotamia, the Caucasus, Anatolia, Armenia, the Aegean Sea and before the walls of Constantinople itself. After an initial phase of Sasanian conquest, the Byzantines were able to regain most of their territories. The war ended after a civil war broke out in Persia. After the war both Empires were so weakened that the Middle East and North Africa were soon conquered by the emerging Islamic Caliphate.

48.24.1.Persian dominance (Byzantine-Sasanian War of 602-628)

Were a series of Sasanian military campaigns that resulted in the conquest of large portions of the Byzantine Empire.

January 606: An army sent by Roman emperor Phocas against Sasanian Shah Khosrow was defeated near Dara in Upper Mesopotamia, leading to the capture of that important fortress in 605.

January 610: During the civil war in the Byzantine Empire, the Persians, led by King Khosrow II, seized the opportunity to expand their territory. In 609, they successfully conquered the frontier towns of Mardin and Amida in Upper Mesopotamia, further strengthening their control in the region.

November 610: By the time of Heraclius' accession the Persians had conquered all Roman cities east of the Euphrates and in Armenia before moving on to Cappadocia, where their general Shahin took Caesarea.

January 614: The cities of Damascus, Apamea, and Emesa fell quickly to the Sasanians in 613.

January 614: The Battle of Antioch took place in 613 outside Antioch. The victorious Persians were able to maintain a hold on the recently taken Byzantine territory. The victory paved the way for further Sasanian advance into the Levant and Anatolia.

January 614: In 613, the Roman forces, led by Emperor Heraclius, suffered a defeat against the Sasanian Empire at the Cilician Gates. This strategic pass was crucial for controlling access to the region north of Antioch.

January 614: The Persians captured Tarsus and the Cilician plain.

June 614: The Sasanian Empire, under the rule of King Khosrow II, conquered Jerusalem after a brief siege in 614. This conquest led to the fall of the Byzantine Empire's control over the region and marked a significant shift in power in the area.

January 623: In 622, the Sasanian Empire captured Ancyra, an important military base in central Anatolia, during the ongoing conflict with the Byzantine Empire. The Persians were led by King Khosrow II, while the Byzantines were under the rule of Emperor Heraclius.

January 624: Rhodes and several other islands in the eastern Aegean fell in 622/3, threatening a naval assault on Constantinople.

48.24.2.Sasanian conquest of Egypt

Sasanian military campaign that resulted in the conquest of Byzantine Egypt.

January 618: Chalcedon fell in 617 to Shahin, bringing the Persians within sight of Constantinople.

July 619: According to the Khuzistan Chronicle, Alexandria was betrayed to the Persians by a certain Peter in June 619.

January 622: After the fall of Alexandria, the Persians gradually extended their rule southwards along the Nile. Sporadic resistance required some mopping-up operations, but by 621, the province was securely in Persian hands.

48.24.3.Byzantine Counterattack (Byzantine-Sasanian War of 602-628)

Were a series of military operations by the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius that resulted in the reconquest of most of the territories lost to the Sasanian Empire.

September 622: Heraclius threatened Persian communications from the Euphrates valley to Anatolia by marching to Cappadocia. This forced the Persian forces in Anatolia under Shahrbaraz to retreat from the front-lines of Bithynia and Galatia to eastern Anatolia in order to block his access to Iran.

December 622: What followed next is not entirely clear, but Heraclius certainly won a crushing victory over Shahrbaraz in the fall of 622. Thus he saved Anatolia from the Persians.

November 624: Byzantine emperor Heraclius and his army wintered in Caucasian Albania.

January 625: Byzantine Emperor Heraclius recovered Caesarea from the Sassanid Empire before continuing his campaign in the Caucasus region.

January 625: Heraclius left Constantinople to attack the Persian heartland. He advanced along the Araxes River, destroying Persian-held Dvin, the capital of Armenia, and Nakhchivan. At Ganzaka, Heraclius met Khosrow's army, then destroyed Adur Gushnasp. His raids went as far as the Gayshawan.

January 626: In 625, the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius bypassed Mount Ararat and traveled 200 miles along the Arsanias River to capture the cities of Amida and Martyropolis from the Sassanid Empire.

July 626: The siege of Constantinople by the Sassanid Persians and Avars, aided by large numbers of allied Slavs, ended in a strategic victory for the Byzantines.

August 626: The siege of Constantinople in 626 was led by the Sassanid Persian Empire and the Avars, with support from Slavic allies. The Byzantine Empire, under the leadership of Emperor Heraclius, successfully defended the city, securing a crucial victory.

September 627: In mid-September 627, Heraclius invaded the Iranian heartland.

December 627: With no Persian army left to oppose him, Heraclius' victorious army plundered Dastagird.

March 628: The Persian army rebelled and overthrew Khosrow II, installing his son Kavadh II as his successor. Immediately after ascending to the throne, Kavadh II initiated peace talks with Byzantine Emperor Heraclius. Under the terms of the resulting peace treaty, the Byzantines regained all their territories that had been lost, their captured soldiers, a war indemnity, and the religious relics that had been taken from Jerusalem.

49. Independence of Roman centers in Dalmatia

Several important cities in Dalmatia became factually independent after the end of the Western Roman Empire.

January 481: The Alchon Huns, also known as the Hephthalites, were a nomadic people who invaded the region of Sindh in 480 CE. They were a powerful Central Asian tribe known for their military prowess and conquests in the region.

50. Hephthalite-Sasanian War of 484

Was a military confrontation that took place in 484 between an invading force of the Sasanian Empire under the command of Peroz I and a smaller army of the Hephthalite Empire under the command of Khushnavaz. The battle was a catastrophic defeat for the Sasanian forces and resulted in the creation of the state of the Nezak Huns, as well as the conquest of several territories by the Hephtalites.

January 485: Peroz was defeated and killed by a Hephthalite army near Balkh. The main Sasanian cities of the eastern region of Khorasan−Nishapur, Herat and Marw were now under Hephthalite rule.

January 485: In 484, Peroz I, the grandfather of Khosrow I Anushirvan, was killed in the Battle of Herat by the Hephthalites and allowed them to annex much of Khorasan from the Sasanians.

January 485: The Nezak Huns established their realm in 484, after the defeat and death of the Sasanian King of Kings (shahanshah) Peroz I against the Hephthalites.

January 486: The Huns invaded the Sassanid territories which had been left without a central government following the death of the king. Much of the Sassanid land was pillaged repeatedly for a period of two years.

51. Revolt of Mar-Zutra II

Mar-Zutra II was a Jewish Exilarch who led a revolt against the Sasanian rulers in 495 CE and achieved seven years of political independence in Mahoza.

January 496: Mar-Zutra II was a Jewish Exilarch who led a revolt against the Sasanian rulers in 495 AD and achieved seven years of political independence in Mahoza.

January 503: The Jewish state lasted seven years, until 502 CE, when Kavadh finally defeated Mar-Zutra and punished him with crucifixion on the bridge of Mahoza.

52. Battle of Bukhara

The Battle of Gol-Zarriun or Battle of Bukhara, took place in c. 560 when the Sasanian Empire allied with the First Turkic Khaganate against the Hephthalite Empire.

January 561: The Hephthalites possessed military power, but they lacked the organization to fight on multiple fronts. The Sasanians and the Turks made an alliance and launched a two-pronged attack on the Hephthalites, taking advantage of their disorganization and disunity. As a result, the Turks took the territory north of the Oxus River.

53. Aksumite-Persian wars

Were a protracted series of armed engagements between the Sasanian Persian Empire and the Aksumite Empire for control over the waning Himyarite Kingdom in southern Arabia (modern-day Yemen) in the 6th century CE.

January 571: After the Battle of Hadhramaut and the Siege of Sana'a in 570, the Aksumites were expelled from the Arabian peninsula.

January 576: In 575, the war resumed again, after Saif was killed by Axumites. The Persian general Vahrez led another army of 8000, ending Axum rule in Yemen.

January 576: Aksum re-established its power.

53.1.Sassanid conquest of Aden

The Sassanid Empire annexed Aden around 570 CE.

January 571: The Sasanid Empire annexed Aden around 570 CE.

54. Göktürk-Persian wars

Was a series of conflicts between the Göktürks and the Sassanid Empire.

54.1.First Perso-Turkic War

Was a war fought by the Turkic Khaganate, together with his Hephthalite subjects, against the Sasanian Empire.

January 589: In 588, the Turkic Khagan Bagha Qaghan (known as Sabeh/Saba in Persian sources), together with his Hephthalite subjects, invaded the Sasanian territories south of the Oxus, where they attacked and routed the Sasanian soldiers stationed in Balkh, and then proceeded to conquer the city along with Talaqan, Badghis, and Herat.

January 590: In a council of war, Bahram was chosen to lead an army against them. His army ambushed a large army of Turks and Hephthalites in April 588, at the battle of Hyrcanian rock, and again in 589, re-conquering Balkh.

January 590: Hormizd IV proceeded to cross the Oxus river and won a decisive victory over Turks. The Sasanians now held suzerainty over the Sogdian cities of Chach and Samarkand, where Hormizd minted coins.

54.2.Second Perso-Turkic War

Was an invasion of the Sasanian Empire by the Göktürks and Hephthalites ending with the defeat of the Turks and Hephthalites by the Sasanians.

January 607: A Western Turkic force overran Khorasan and further territory up to Isfahan.

February 607: The Turks withdrew after their raids in Khorasan.

54.3.Third Perso-Turkic War

Was the third and final conflict between the Sasanian Empire and the Western Turkic Khaganate.

January 630: In 629, the Turks, led by their ruler Tong Yabghu, raided Caucasian Iberia, a territory of the Sasanian Empire. Anticipating a strong retaliation from the Sassanids, the Turks looted cities before retreating to the steppes.

55. Early Muslim conquests

Were the military campaigns by the first three Islamic Caliphates (the Caliphate of Muhammad, the Rashidun Caliphate and the Umayyad Caliphate) that led to the Islamic conquest of most of the Middle East as well as the Iberian Peninsula.

55.1.Establishment of Mohammed´s Caliphate

Was the establishment of the first Islamic Caliphate under the Prophet Mohammed.

January 631: In 630 CE, Mohammed sent his cousin Ali to Sana'a, Yemen, which was the most advanced region in Arabia. The Banu Hamdan confederation, one of the prominent tribes in the area, was among the first to accept Islam under Ali's leadership.

January 631: In 630 AD the island of Bahrain was conquered by the Arabs.

January 633: When Mohammed died in 632, the entire Arabian Peninsula was under the control of his Caliphate.

55.2.Conquest of Persia

Was a military campaign by the Rashidun Caliphate that resulted in the Muslim conquest of Persia and the fall of the Sasanian Empire.

January 640: Muslim invasion of Fars in 638/9 led by the Rashidun Caliphate.

February 640: Rashidun forces leave Fars.

January 643: From Nahavand, Nu'man ibn Muqaarin marched to Hamadan, and then proceeded 370 kilometres southeast to the city of Isfahan, defeating a Sasanian army there. Nu'man, reinforced by fresh troops from Busra and Kufa under the command of Abu Musa Ashaari and Ahnaf ibn Qais, then besieged the city. The siege continued for a few months before the city surrendered.

January 644: Suhail was a military commander of the Rashidun Caliphate. Kerman was a province in Persia. Persepolis was an ancient city in Persia. The Rashidun Caliphate was a Muslim empire that expanded rapidly in the 7th century.

January 644: In ca. 643, Uthman ibn Abi al-As, a military commander under the Rashidun Caliphate, seized control of Bishapur, an ancient city in present-day Iran.

January 645: Attack by al-'Ala' from Bahrain to nthe Sasanian Empire who reached as far as Estakhr.

February 645: In 645, the Persian governor (marzban) of Fars, Shahrag, successfully repulsed an attack by al-'Ala' from Bahrain.

January 649: In 648, 'Abd-Allah ibn al-'Ash'ari, a military commander of the Rashidun Caliphate, successfully captured the city of Estakhr in Fars after forcing the governor, Mahak, to surrender. This event marked a significant victory for the Rashidun Caliphate in expanding their territory in the region.

January 651: The first real invasion took place in 650, when Abd-Allah ibn Amir, having secured his position in Kerman, sent an army under Mujashi ibn Mas'ud there. After crossing the Dasht-i Lut desert, Mujashi ibn Mas'ud reached Sakastan, but suffered a heavy defeat and was forced to retreat.

February 651: The first real invasion took place in 650, when Abd-Allah ibn Amir, having secured his position in Kerman, sent an army under Mujashi ibn Mas'ud there. After crossing the Dasht-i Lut desert, Mujashi ibn Mas'ud reached Sakastan, but suffered a heavy defeat and was forced to retreat.

January 652: Abdullah ibn Aamir, a general of the Rashidun Caliphate, besieged the provincial capital, Zrang, and, after a heavy battle outside the city, its governor, Aparviz, surrendered.

January 652: In 651, the Arab general Nu'aym led an expedition from Rey to Tabaristan, where the local ruler signed a peace treaty with the Rashidun Caliphate. Tabaristan was a region south of the Caspian Sea.

January 652: In 651, Nu'aym ibn Muqaarin, Nu'man's brother, marched northeast to Rey, Iran, about 320 kilometres from Hamadan, and laid siege to the city, which surrendered after fierce resistance.

January 652: Nu'aym was a military commander under the Rashidun Caliphate. Qom was a city in Persia known for its strategic location. The capture of Qom was part of the expansion of the Rashidun Caliphate's territory in the region.

January 652: Next, he besieged the provincial capital, Zrang, and, after a heavy battle outside the city, its governor, Aparviz, surrendered.

55.2.1.First invasion of Mesopotamia

Was the first military campaign in Mesopotamia by the Rashidun Caliphate.

April 633: The Battle of Al Madhar, took place in Mesopotamia (Iraq) between the forces of the Rashidun Caliphate and the Sasanian Empire. Muslims, under Khalid ibn al-Walid's command, defeated the numerically superior Persian army.

May 633: Battle of Walaja.

May 633: Battle of Ullais.

June 633: In the last week of May 633, the important city of Hira fell to the Muslims led by the Rashidun Caliphate, specifically under the command of Khalid ibn al-Walid. Hira was a strategic city in present-day Iraq, marking a significant victory for the expanding Muslim empire.

July 633: In 633, the military leader Khalid, a companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, conquered the city of Ayn al-Tamr in the last week of July. This victory was part of the expansion of the Rashidun Caliphate, led by Caliph Abu Bakr, in the Arabian Peninsula.

December 633: Battle of Saniyy.

December 633: He received news of the assembling of a large Persian army and then decided to defeat them all separately to avoid the risk of being defeated by a large unified Persian army. Four divisions of Persian and Christian Arab auxiliaries were present at Hanafiz, Zumiel, Sanni and Muzieh. Khalid divided his army into three units, and employed them in well-coordinated attacks against the Persians from three different sides at night, in the Battle of Muzayyah.

November 634: The Battle of the Bridge took place in 634 between the Rashidun Caliphate, led by Abu Ubaid, and the Persians. The Persians emerged victorious in this battle, which occurred near Kufa, Iraq, marking a significant event in the ongoing conflict between the two powers.

November 634: The Battle of the Bridge in 634 saw the Sasanian Empire defeating Abu Ubaid, a prominent military leader of the Rashidun Caliphate. This victory marked a significant turning point in the Arab-Persian conflict during the early Islamic conquests.

January 635: After commander Khalid ibn al-Walid left Mesopotamia, the Persians pursued the Muslim army and recaptured most of their previously lost territory. Consequently, the Muslim forces were compelled to withdraw from the conquered areas and consolidate their position along the border, where they still held control over Namaraq, Kaskar, and Baqusiathain in southern Iraq.

55.2.2.Second invasion of Mesopotamia

Was the second military campaign in Mesopotamia by the Rashidun Caliphate.

January 637: Saad ibn Abi Waqqas, a prominent companion of the Prophet Muhammad, led the Rashidun Caliphate forces in the Battle of Babylon in 636. The victory resulted in the conquest of Babylon by the Rashidun Caliphate.

January 637: Rashidun conquest of Kūthā, Sābāṭ (Valashabad) and Bahurasīr (Veh-Ardashir).

May 637: Utbah ibn Ghazwan arrived in April 637, and captured al-Ubulla and Basra.

May 637: After the conquest of Ctesiphon, several detachments were immediately sent west to capture Circesium and Heet, both forts at the Byzantine border.

December 637: In April 637, the Arab general Hashim, serving under the Rashidun Caliphate, led 12,000 troops to victory over the Persians at the Battle of Jalawla. Following the battle, he laid siege to Jalawla for seven months before capturing the city.

January 638: With victory at Jalawla and occupation of the Tikrit-Mosul region, the whole of Mesopotamia was under Muslim control.

January 638: Rashidun general Abdullah ibn Muta'am marched against Tikrit and captured the city with the help of Christians.

January 638: Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab of the Rashidun Caliphate sent an army to Mosul which surrendered on the condition of paying Jizya.

January 638: Qa'qa defeated the Persian forces in the Battle of Khaniqeen and captured the city.

February 638: After the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah, the Persian forces retreated to Hulwan. Qa'qa ibn Amr, a prominent general of the Rashidun Caliphate, pursued them and successfully laid siege to the city. Hulwan fell to the Rashidun forces in January 638.

March 638: By February 638 there was a lull in the fighting on the Persian front. The Suwad, the Tigris valley, and the Euphrates valley were now under complete Muslim control.

55.2.3.Conquest of Armenia

The Muslims had conquered Byzantine Armenia in 638-639.

December 644: With the success of all three missions, the advance into Armenia came to an end with the death of Umar in November 644.

55.2.4.Conquest of Khuzestan

Was the conquest of Khuzestan by the Rashidun Caliphate.

November 640: This peace also proved short-lived once Hormuzan was reinforced by fresh Persian troops sent by Emperor Yazdgerd III in late 640. The troops concentrated at Tuster, north of Ahvaz. Umar sent the Governor of Kufa, Ammar ibn Yasir, the governor of Busra, Abu Musa, and Nouman ibn Muqarin there, where Hormuzan was defeated, captured and sent to Umar in Medina.

July 641: Next, Abu Musa marched against Junde Sabur, the only place left of military importance in the Persian province of Khuzistan, which surrendered to the Muslims after a siege of a few weeks.

55.2.5.Conquest of Hamadan

Was the conquest of Hamadan by the Rashidun Caliphate.

January 643: Within four years Yazdgerd III felt powerful enough to challenge the Muslims again for control of Mesopotamia. Accordingly, he recruited 100,000 hardened veterans and young volunteers from all parts of Persia, under the command of Mardan Shah, which marched to Nahavand for the last titanic struggle with the Caliphate. Although Umar had expressed a desire for Mesopotamia to be his easternmost frontier, the concentration of the Persian army at Nahavand forced him to act. The Muslim army defeated the Persians at the Battle of Nahavand in December 642.

April 643: The Muslims, led by the Rashidun Caliphate, captured the district of Hamadan in 643. The conquest was relatively easy as they faced minimal resistance from the local inhabitants.

55.2.6.Conquest of Khorasan

Was the conquest of Khorasan by the Rashidun Caliphate.

January 652: The remainder of Yazdegerd's army was defeated at the Battle of Oxus River and retreated across the Oxus to Transoxiana.

January 652: No resistance was offered at Merv, and the Muslims occupied the capital of Khurasan without firing a shot.

55.2.7.Conquest of Azerbaijan

Was the conquest of Azerbaijan by the Rashidun Caliphate.

January 652: On his way north Bukair was halted by a large Persian force under Isfandiyar, the son of Farrukhzad. A pitched battle was fought, after which Isfandiyar was defeated and captured. In return for his life, he agreed to surrender his estates in Azerbaijan and persuade others to submit to Muslim rule.

55.3.Muslim conquest of the Levant

Was a 634-638 CE invasion of Byzantine Syria by the Rashidun Caliphate. .

55.3.1.Conquest of Syria

Conquest of Syria from the Byantines by the Rashidun Caliphate.

January 635: The Rashidun Caliphate needed six years to conquer the entire Arabian Peninsula (628-634).

55.3.2.Final Stage of the conquest in Syria and Palestina

Consolidation of the Rashidun Caliphate conquests in the Levant.

July 637: Khalid defeated a large Byzantine force in the Battle of Hazir near the fortress of Qinnasrin and then the city of Hazir surrendered to Khalid.

55.4.Battle of Rasil

Fought between the Rashidun Caliphate and the Rai kingdom ruled by Raja Rasil in early 644. The Makran coast up to Indus river and western territories of Rai Kingdom were annexed by the Rashidun Caliphate.

April 644: Conflict fought between the Rashidun Caliphate and the Rai kingdom ruled by Raja Rasil in early 644. Makran coast up to Indus river and western territories of Rai Kingdom annexed by Rashidun Caliphate.

55.5.Arab-Khazar Wars

Were a series of conflicts fought between the armies of the Khazar Khaganate and the Rashidun, Umayyad, and Abbasid caliphates and their respective vassals.

55.5.1.First Arab-Khazar War

Was a war between the Khazar Kahaganate and the Rashidun Caliphate.

January 653: The Khazars abandoned Balanjar and moved their capital further north, in an attempt to evade the reach of the Arab armies.

February 653: The Khazars abandoned Balanjar and moved their capital further north, in an attempt to evade the reach of the Arab armies.

55.6.Muslim conquest of Transoxiana, Ferghana and Khorasan

Were the 7th and 8th century conquests, by Umayyad and Abbasid Arabs, of Transoxiana, the land between the Oxus (Amu Darya) and Jaxartes (Syr Darya) rivers, a part of Central Asia that today includes all or parts of Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan.

January 657: The local population, led by Qarin (possibly a member of the House of Karen) rose in revolt. The Arabs evacuated all of Khurasan, and according to Chinese sources, the princes of Tokharistan restored Yazdegerd III's son Peroz as titular king of Persia for a time.

January 671: It was not until the appointment of Ziyad ibn Abi Sufyan to the government of Iraq and the eastern Caliphate that the Arabs undertook a systematic pacification campaign in Khurasan. Peroz was evicted and once again fled to China.

56. Conquests of Uthman

Expansion during the rule of Uthman in the Rashidun Caliphate.

January 655: Armenia conquered by Rashidun Caliphate.

57. Further events (Unrelated to Any War)

January 714 BC: Cyaxares I was the king of the Median Empire and is considered the founder of a larger confederation in Western Iran. He resided in the capital city of Ekbatana, which was an important political and cultural center during his reign in -715.

January 686 BC: The Kabul valley, located in present-day Afghanistan, was under the rule of the Median Empire, which was a powerful ancient Iranian civilization. The Median Empire was founded by King Deioces and later ruled by King Cyaxares.

January 652 BC: Scythian domination on Media.

January 599 BC: The Kingdom of Kapisa was a state located in what is now Afghanistan during the late 1st millennium AD.

May 585 BC: The war between the Lydians and the Medes was ended in -585 when a solar eclipse, predicted by Thales of Miletus, occurred on May 28. The event was so terrifying to both sides that they quickly made peace up to the border with Lydia, with the territory going to the Median Empire.

January 559 BC: Greek colony established by Phokaia or Miletos 560 BC.

January 540 BC: Greek colony established by Miletos in the VI century BC.

January 540 BC: Greek colony established in the VI century BC.

January 539 BC: Both Herodotus and Appian describe the conquest of the city by Harpagus on behalf of the Persian Empire, in approximately 540 BC.

January 534 BC: Persian conquest of the Gandhara region.

January 530 BC: Greek colony established by Astypalaia VII-VI century BC.

January 530 BC: Greek colony established by Aiolis in the VI century BC.

January 510 BC: In 512/511 BC, the Persian general Megabyzus forced the Macedonian king Amyntas I to make his kingdom a vassal of the Achaemenids.

January 510 BC: Lemnos was conquered by Otanes, a general of Darius Hystaspis.

January 509 BC: In 510 BC, Lemnos was reconquered by Miltiades the Younger, who was the tyrant of the Thracian Chersonese. After this, Lemnos became an Athenian possession until it was absorbed by the Macedonian empire.

January 500 BC: Nikonion was founded around the VI Century.

January 500 BC: Mesambria (Pontos) was founded around the VI Century.

January 500 BC: Foundation of the polis of Stagiros. Based on numismatic evidence.

January 500 BC: Greek colony established in the VI century BC.

January 500 BC: Greek colony established by Miletos in VI-V century BC.

January 499 BC: The Greek Polis of Drys is established.

January 499 BC: The Greek Polis of Sale is established.

January 499 BC: The Greek Polis of Kypsela is established.

January 499 BC: The Greek Polis of Bergepolis is established.

January 499 BC: The year of foundation of the polity of Sindos is based on peer group of similar polities in the same region (Phersu Atlas assumption).

January 499 BC: Apollonia is founded in Thrace.

January 499 BC: The Greek Polis of Arethousa is established.

January 499 BC: The Kingdom of Trigarta is first mentioned by sources in the V century BC.

January 499 BC: Foundation of the polis of Dikaia (Chalkidike). Based on numismatic evidence.

January 499 BC: The year of foundation of the polity of Lete is based on peer group of similar polities in the same region (Phersu Atlas assumption).

January 499 BC: Skithai was a greek polis in the ancient region of Chalkidike from 500 BC.

January 499 BC: The year of foundation of the polity of Herakleia (Mygdonia) is based on peer group of similar polities in the same region (Phersu Atlas assumption).

January 499 BC: Gigonos is founded.

January 499 BC: The year of foundation of the polity of Chalestre is based on peer group of similar polities in the same region (Phersu Atlas assumption).

January 499 BC: The year of foundation of the polity of Bormiskos is based on peer group of similar polities in the same region (Phersu Atlas assumption).

January 499 BC: Mesembria arose in the course of Greek colonization in the late 6th or early 5th century BC.

January 499 BC: It later passed under Athenian control, and was a member of the Delian League.

January 499 BC: The Greek Polis of Zone is established.

January 498 BC: Achaemenid Persian hegemony over Macedonia was briefly interrupted by the Ionian Revolt (499-493 BC).

January 496 BC: Myrkinos was founded as a polis by colonists from Miletus in 497 BC.

January 491 BC: In 492 BC, following the Ionian Revolt, the Persian general Mardonius firmly re-tightened the Persian grip in the Balkans.

January 404 BC: Iasos was destroyed in 405.

January 400 BC: In 401 BC Miletos was handed over by Sparta to the Persian authority of the satrap Tissaphernes.

January 398 BC: Larisa (Troas) is incorporated into the Persian Empire in 399 BC.

January 398 BC: In 399 BC Kolonai was forcibly reincorporated into the Persian Empire.

January 386 BC: Melos becomes again indipendent from the Persians.

January 374 BC: Karene is conquered by Persia.

January 374 BC: Antandros is conquered by Persia.

January 374 BC: Myous is conquered by Persia.

January 356 BC: Kalchedon was liberated from the Persians by Byzantium.

January 342 BC: The Persian forces were driven out of Phoenicia.

January 341 BC: Phoenicia is reconquered by the Achaemenid Empire.

January 339 BC: The Dodecanese was taken in 340 BC by the Persians.

January 301 BC: Pharnavaz, victorious in a power struggle, became the first king of Iberia (c.302- c.237 BC).

January 300 BC: Following the defeat of Antigonus and Demetrius in the battle of Ipsus (301 BC), there was a vacuum of power in Asia Minor, which Mithridates exploited to create an independent domain.

January 279 BC: In the following years he expanded the influence of his domain, defending it from the aims of Seleucus I, and in 281 or 280 BC he was able to declare himself Βασιλεύς (Basileus «ruler») of the territories of northern Cappadocia and eastern Paphlagonia.

January 278 BC: In 279 BC Miletus was taken from Seleucid king Antiochus II by Egyptian king Ptolemy II Philadelphus.

January 278 BC: Sakarya wiver and Amastris conquered by Kingdom of Pontus.

January 268 BC: Either in 275 or 269 BC Seleucid king Antiochos' army faced the Galatians somewhere on the plain of Sardis in the Battle of Elephants. In the aftermath of the battle the Celts then settled in northern Phrygia, a region that eventually came to be known as Galatia.

January 262 BC: Ephesus came under Egyptian rule between 263 and 197 BC.

January 251 BC: Antiochus II campaigned in the Thracian interior in around 252 BC.

January 249 BC: The history of the Kuninda Kingdom is documented from around the 2nd century BC. They are mentioned in Indian epics and Puranas. One of the first kings of the Kuninda was Amoghbhuti, who ruled in the mountainous valley of the Yamuna and Sutlej rivers (in today's Uttarakhand and southern Himachal in northern India).

January 249 BC: The Zenon papyri, a collection of documents from the time of Ptolemy II Philadelphus, provide evidence of the Nabataeans expanding into the Hauran region around -250 BC. This marked the Nabatean Kingdom's territorial expansion and influence in the area during this period.

January 236 BC: Iberian kin Saurmag, Colchis regained its independence.

January 222 BC: In 223 BC a Seleucid attack toward Atropatene resulted in victory. Consequently, the king of Atropatene, Artabazan, accepted the ascendency of Seleucids and became dependent on it.

January 204 BC: In 206-205 BC Antiochos III (222-187 BC) seems to have recovered Drangiana for the Seleucids during his Anabasis.

January 199 BC: Remained in their control through 200 BC.

January 199 BC: After the departure of the Seleucid army, the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, under the rule of King Euthydemus I and his son Demetrius I, experienced maximal northern expansion on the map around -200. This expansion marked a significant period of territorial growth and influence for the kingdom.

January 199 BC: In the second half of the 3rd century BC it was at least temporarily annexed by Euthydemos I of Bactria.

January 199 BC: After 246 BC, for about half a century, the Ptolemies, a dynasty of Macedonian Greek origin, ruled over the territory of Nan. However, in -200 BC, the territory was conquered by the Seleucid Kingdom, a Hellenistic state founded by Seleucus I Nicator, one of Alexander the Great's generals.

January 199 BC: After the departure of the Seleucid army, the kingdom seems to have expanded, in particular towards the west, probably incorporating portions of the Parthian territory, whose ruler Arsaces II had been defeated by Antiochus III.

January 189 BC: The defeat of the Seleucid King Antiochos III by the Romans at Magnesia Sipylus in 190 BC redraws the political map of the Middle East. Under the terms of the Peace of Apamea (188 BC), Antiochus III could no longer intervene north of the Taurus, creating a political vacuum which was immediately filled by new independent kingdoms. From 190 BC. BC, the satrap of Armenia Artaxias, with whom the Carthaginian Hannibal took refuge, founded on his advice the city of Artaxates (south of present-day Yerevan) on the banks of the Araxes, and makes it the capital of a kingdom of Armenia of which he proclaims himself king, with the blessing of the Romans.

January 188 BC: After the defeat of Antiochus III in the battle of Magnesia against the Romans, two Seleucid generals, Artaxias and Zariadres, declared themselves independent kings of Sophene in -189 BC.

January 188 BC: The Kingdom of Gordiene emerged with the decline of the Seleucid Empire.

January 166 BC: Aeria and surroundings became part of the Parthian Empire in 167 BC.

January 163 BC: Coinage implies the establishment of a kingdom in Adiabene around 164 BC, following the disintegration of Greek Seleucid rule in the Near East.

January 161 BC: The Hellenistic kingdom of Commagene, bounded by Cilicia on the west and Cappadocia on the north, arose in 162 BC when its governor, Ptolemy, a satrap of the disintegrating Seleucid Empire, declared himself independent.

January 146 BC: The Kingdom of Elymais was autonomous state of the 2nd century BC.

January 140 BC: The Seleucids had suffered heavy defeats by the Iranian Parthian Empire; in 148/7 BC, the Parthian king Mithridates I (r. 171-132 BC) conquered Media and Atropatene, and by 141 BC, was in the possession of Babylonia. The menace and proximity of the Parthians caused Hyspaosines to declare independence.

January 140 BC: Adiabene was conquered by the Parthian king Mithridates I (r. 171-132 BC) in ca. 145-141 BC.

January 139 BC: Around 140 BC the Saka invaded Parthian territory through Margiana, venturing as far as Media in central Iran and continuing to harass the Parthians until 124 BC, in the course of which they defeated and killed two successive Parthian kings.

January 131 BC: Osroene, or Edessa, was one of several states that acquired independence from the collapsing Seleucid Empire through a dynasty of the nomadic Nabataean Arab tribe from Southern Canaan and North Arabia, the Osrhoeni, from 136 BC.

January 123 BC: In 124 BC king Hyspaosines accepted Parthian suzerainty, and continued to rule Characene as a vassal. Characene would generally remain a semi-autonomous kingdom under Parthian suzerainty till its fall.

January 119 BC: The greco-bactrian kingdom ended with the invasion of the yuezhi. What remained of the kingdom in india become the indo-greek kingdom.

January 119 BC: Mithridates II later recovered the lands lost to the Saka in Sakastan.

January 89 BC: Phraates III of Parthia annexed Corduene to his empire.

January 45 BC: Gondophares was a Parthian king who founded the Indo-Parthian Kingdom in the region. The Takht-i-Bahi monastery, established by Gondophares in 46 CE near Peshawar, served as an important Buddhist site in the area.

January 14 BC: The Apracharajas were an Indo-Scythian ruling dynasty of western Pakistan that ruled from 15 BC.

January 20: The Suren Kingdom was founded in 19 when the Surenid governor of Drangiana (Sakastan) Gondophares declared independence from the Parthian Empire.

January 31: Gondophares, a Parthian prince, established the Indo-Parthian Kingdom in the 1st century AD. He ruled over regions including Arachosia, Seistan, Sindh, Punjab, and the Kabul valley. However, his territory did not extend beyond eastern Punjab.

January 36: Indo-Scythian (Saka) rulers of ancient India who ruled over the region of Sindh, Makran, Saurashtra and Malwa (in modern Sindh, Balochistan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh of India and Pakistan), between 35 and 405 CE.

January 38: After the defeat of Tigranes of Armenia by the Romans, the Parthians extended their control to Corduene.

January 51: The Kushans returned to Margiana in the 1st century AD and helped the satrap Sanabares declare himself king who ruled from ca. 50 AD.

January 92: Han Dynasty general Ban Chao, with the aid of the Kushan Empire, was able to subdue the regions of Kashgar and Sogdiana.

January 101: The Kingdom of Hatra was a 2nd-century Arab kingdom located between the Roman Empire and the Parthian Empire.

January 101: Kushan emperor Vima Kadphises (c. 95 - c. 127) conquers territories in Bactria.

January 128: In the year one, it has been proclaimed unto India, unto the whole realm of the governing class, including Koonadeano (Kaundiny, Kundina) and the city of Ozeno (Ozene, Ujjain) and the city of Zageda (Saketa) and the city of Kozambo (Kausambi) and the city of Palabotro (Pataliputra) and as far as the city of Ziri-tambo (Sri-Champa), whatever rulers and other important persons (they might have) he had submitted to (his) will, and he had submitted all India to (his) will. — Rabatak inscription, Lines 4-8.

January 197: The Tanûkhids were a confederation of Arab tribes from 196 AD. The confederation occupied southern Syria and Jordan and western Iraq.

January 201: Aria was sometime between the late 2nd- and early 3rd-century conquered by the Kushan Empire.

January 201: At the onset of the 3rd century AD, Margiana had been restored as a vassal of the Parthian Empire, but continued to exist as a "virtually independent state".

April 224: In 221-222 AD, an ethnic Persian, Ardashir V, who was King of Persis, led a revolt against the Parthians, establishing the Sasanian Empire. The Battle of Hormozdgan was the climactic battle between the Arsacid and the Sasanian dynasties. The Sasanian victory broke the power of the Arsacid dynasty, effectively ending almost five centuries of Parthian rule in Iran, and marking the official start of the Sasanian era.

April 224: After the Sasanian victory over the last Parthian king at the Battle of Hormozdgān in 224 AD, Margiana, ruled by a certain king Ardashir, submitted to Sasanian king Ardashir V and accepted vassalage.

April 224: In 221-222 AD, an ethnic Persian, Ardashir V, who was King of Persis, led a revolt against the Parthians, establishing the Sasanian Empire. Ardashir V defeated Characene forces and annexed the country.

January 226: The Indo-Parthians managed to retain control of Sakastan, which they ruled until the fall of the Parthian Empire by Sasanian Empire.

January 226: The Sasanians captured the provinces of Sogdiana, Bactria and Gandhara from the Kushans in 225 AD. The Sasanians established governors in the area, who minted their own coinage and took the title of Kushanshas, i.e. "Kings of the Kushans".

January 231: In ca. 230 the province was lost to the Sasanian Empire.

January 241: The Kushans were defeated by the Sassanid Persian Empire in the mid 3rd century, first becoming part of a vassal Kushansha state.

January 241: Vasudeva I was the last great Kushan emperor, and the end of his rule coincides with the invasion of the Sasanians as far as northwestern India, and the establishment of the Indo-Sasanians or Kushanshahs in what is nowadays Afghanistan, Pakistan and northwestern India from around 240 AD.

January 246: In 245, the Roman Empire regained control of Caucasian Albania under the rule of Emperor Philip the Arab. This marked a period of Roman influence in the region, with the territory remaining under Roman control for several decades.

January 251: Christian Arabs emigrated, in the year 250, from Yemen to the Hawran region in southern Syria and established the Ghassanid Kingdom.

January 301: The Lahmid Kingdom was an Arab kingdom of southern Iraq and East Arabia, with al-Hirah as its capital, from about 300 AD.

January 301: Gerrha was under the control of the Persian Sasanids after 300.

January 351: After a period of control of the areas as far as Gandhara by the Kushano-Sasanians, the Sasanian Empire further expanded into the northwest of the subcontinent, particularly in the regions of Gandhara and Punjab, from the time of Shapur II circa 350 CE. Further south, as far as the mouth of the Indus river, the Sasanians exerted some sort of control or influence, as suggested by the Sasanian coinage of Sindh. It is probable that the Sasanian expansion in India, which put an end to the remnants of Kushan rule, was also made in part at the expense of the Western Satraps.

January 371: This administration continued until 360-370 AD, when the Kushano-Sasanians lost much of its domains to the invading Kidarite Huns, whilst the rest was incorporated into the imperial Sasanian Empire.

January 401: The Salīḥids were the dominant Arab foederati of the Byzantine Empire in the 5th century. They succeeded the Tanukhids, who were dominant in the 4th century.

January 451: Peroz I gathered his forces in Nishapur in 443 and launched a prolonged campaign against the Kidarites. After a number of battles he crushed them and drove them out beyond the Oxus river in 450.

January 451: Sakastan was overrun by the Hephthalites in the mid 5th century.

January 451: The Hephthalites became a significant political entity in Bactria around 450 CE.

January 476: In the second half of the fifth century, the Hephtalites controlled the deserts of Turkmenistan as far as the Caspian Sea and possibly Merv.

January 490: The Rai Dynasty (c. 489-632 CE) was a kingdom during the Classical period on the Indian subcontinent, which originated in the region of Sindh, later part of Pakistan. The dynasty at its height ruled much of the Northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent. The influence of the Rai's extended from Kashmir in the east, Makran and Debal port (modern Karachi) in the west, Surat port in the south, and the Kandahar, Sulaiman, Ferdan and Kikanan hills in the north. It ruled an area of over 1,553,993 km2, and the dynasty reigned a period of 143 years.

January 501: By 500 the Hephtalite held the whole of Bactria and the Pamirs and parts of Afghanistan.

January 501: Sarir was a medieval Christian state lasting from the 5th century to the 12th century in the mountainous regions of modern-day Dagestan.

January 509: In 580, Hormizd IV abolished the monarchy after the death of King Bakur III, and Iberia became a Persian province ruled by a marzpan (governor).

January 542: In 541 Lazica defected to the Persians.

January 548: In 547 when Lazica again switched sides and eventually expelled its Persian garrison with Byzantine help.

January 561: The Principality of Chaghaniyan was a part of the Hephthalite Confederation from the 5th to the 7th century AD. After this, it was ruled by a local, presumably Iranian dynasty, which governed the Chaghaniyan region from the late 7th-century.

January 561: The Qarinvand dynasty was founded by Karen, who in return for aiding the Sasanian king Khosrow I (r. 531-579) against the Turks, received land to the south of Amol in Tabaristan.

January 566: The Tokhara Yabghus occupied the area north of the Oxus (Transoxonia, Sogdiana) following the destruction of the Hephthalites in 557-565 CE by the Sasanian Empire.

January 573: In 572, Muqan Qaghan, ruler of the First Turkic Khaganate, achieved a significant victory by defeating the Hephthalite Empire, Khitan, and Kyrgyz. This military success solidified his power and expanded the territory under his control.

January 589: The Turks apparently did not permanently occupy the territory south of the Oxus.

January 601: The Kingdom of Kapisa was a state located in what is now Afghanistan during the late 1st millennium CE. In around 600 CE, the Chinese Buddhist monk Xuanzang made a pilgrimage to Kapisa, and described there the cultivation of rice and wheat, and a king of the Suli tribe.

January 603: In 602, the last Lakhmid king, al-Nuʿmān III, was executed by the Sasanian shāhanshāh Khosrau II on unfounded suspicions of treason and the Lakhmid kingdom was annexed to the Sasanian Persian Empire.

January 626: In 625, Tong Yabgu, a powerful ruler of the Western Turkic Khaganate, launched an invasion into Tokharistan, an area south of the Oxus River. The Hephtalites, also known as the White Huns, were the principalities that were forced to submit to Tong Yabgu's authority.

January 643: The Dabuyid dynasty was a Zoroastrian Iranian dynasty that started in the early seventh century as an independent group of rulers, reigning over Tabaristan and parts of western Khorasan.

January 651: The Qağanate of the Khazars took shape out of the ruins of the Turkic Khaganate as it broke up under pressure from the Tang dynasty armies to the east sometime between 630 and 650.

January 652: The Principality of Chaghaniyan, known in Arabic sources as al-Saghaniyan, was a part of the Hephthalite Confederation from the 5th to the 7th century CE. After this, it was ruled by a local, presumably Iranian dynasty.

January 656: The Paduspanids were a local dynasty in Tabaristan, established in 655. They ruled over Royan, Nur, and Rostamdar. The territory was located in present-day northern Iran.

Disestablishment

Selected Sources

André-Salvini, B. (2005): Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia, University of California Press, p. 45

Appian, XII - The Mithridatic Wars, 105

Appian, XII - The Mithridatic Wars, 106

Appian, XII - The Mithridatic Wars, 94-96

Behistun inscription, Column i, lines 9-17

Fine, J.V.A. (1983): The Ancient Greeks: A Critical History, Harvard University Press, pp. 311-312

Hansen, M. G. / Nielsen, T. H. (2004): An inventory of archaic and classic polities, Oxford University Press, p. 1394

Hansen, M. G. / Nielsen, T. H. (2004): An inventory of archaic and classic polities, Oxford University Press, p. 1395

Hansen, M. G. / Nielsen, T. H. (2004): An inventory of archaic and classic polities, Oxford University Press, pp. 1363-1364

Hansen, M. G. / Nielsen, T. H. (2004): An inventory of archaic and classic polities, Oxford University Press, pp. 1382-1389

Herodotus, The Histories, IX.66

Herodotus, The Histories, VII.25

Holland, T. (2006): Persian Fire: The First World Empire and the Battle for the West, London (UK), pp. 276–281

Plutarch: Parallel Lives, Pompey, 24-29

Roisman, J. / Yardley, J. C. (2011): Ancient Greece From Homer to Alexander: The Evidence, Hoboken (USA), pp. 96, 105–106

Schwartzberg,J. E. (1992): A Historical Atlas of South Asia, Minneapolis (USA), Plate III.B.4b (p.18) and Plate XIV.1a-c (p.145).

Sen, S. N. (1999): Ancient Indian History and Civilization, New Delhi (India), pp. 116-117

Spence, I. (2002): Historical Dictionary of Ancient Greek Warfare, Scarecrow Press, p. XXII

Spence, I. (2002): Historical Dictionary of Ancient Greek Warfare, Scarecrow Press, p. XXIII

Tucker, S.C. (2011) Battles that changed History - An Encyclopedia of World Conflict, ABC-CLIO, pp.11-14

Tucker, S.C. (2011) Battles that changed History - An Encyclopedia of World Conflict, ABC-CLIO, pp.37-39

Tucker, S.C. (2011) Battles that changed History - An Encyclopedia of World Conflict, ABC-CLIO, pp.40-42

Tucker, S.C. (2011) Battles that changed History - An Encyclopedia of World Conflict, ABC-CLIO, pp.43-45

Tucker, S.C. (2011) Battles that changed History - An Encyclopedia of World Conflict, ABC-CLIO, pp.7-9

Xenophon: Hellenica, 5.1.31

Data

Statistics

persia (antiquity)

Establishment

Chronology

57. Further events (Unrelated to Any War)

Disestablishment

Selected Sources

All Phersu Atlas Regions

Africa

Americas

Asia

Europe

Oceania